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Objective To identify obstetric and other risk factors for urinary incontinence that occurs during pregnancy or after childbirth. Design Questionnaire survey of women. Setting Maternity units in Aberdeen (Scotland), Birmingham (England) and Dunedin (New Zealand). Population A total of 3405 primiparous women with singleton births delivered during 1 year. Methods Questionnaire responses and obstetric case note data were analysed using multivariate analysis to identify associations with urinary incontinence. Main outcome measures Urinary incontinence at 3 months after delivery first starting in pregnancy or after birth. Results The prevalence of urinary incontinence was 29%. New incontinence first beginning after delivery was associated with older maternal age (oldest versus youngest group, OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.35–3.02) and method of delivery (caesarean section versus spontaneous vaginal delivery, OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.19–0.41). There were no significant associations with forceps delivery (OR 1.18, 95% CI 0.92–1.51) or vacuum delivery (OR 1.16, 95% CI 0.83–1.63). Incontinence first occurring during pregnancy and still present at 3 months was associated with higher maternal body mass index (BMI > 25, OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.16–2.43) and heavier babies (birthweight in top quartile, OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.12–2.19). In these women, caesarean section was associated with less incontinence (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.27–0.58) but incontinence was not associated with age. Conclusions Women have less urinary incontinence after a first delivery by caesarean section whether or not that first starts during pregnancy. Older maternal age was associated with new postnatal incontinence, and higher BMI and heavier babies with incontinence first starting during pregnancy. The effect of further deliveries may modify these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Controversy about the value of the post-coital test (PCT) has prompted us to re-analyse data from 207 couples, originally studied between 1982 and 1983, with at least 12 months' infertility at presentation, complete diagnostic information and exclusion of female factors, to clarify the effect of duration of infertility on the prediction of conception. In couples with less than 3 years infertility and a positive PCT, 68% conceived within 2 years compared with 17% of those with a negative result. After 3 years, corresponding rates were 14% and 11%. The relative risks of conception [95% confidence interval (CI)] calculated using the Cox's proportional hazards model were 0.23 (0.12-0.43) for a negative PCT (reference positive PCT) and 0.25 (0.13-0.51) for more than 36 months infertility (reference 12-23 months). Semen analysis had no extra predictive power given the duration of infertility and the PCT. The PCT is an effective predictor of conception where defined female causes of infertility are absent and duration of infertility is less than 3 years. Once infertility is prolonged (beyond 3 years) the conception rate is low even with a positive test because a large proportion of couples remaining childless so long have true unexplained infertility. Use of the PCT will enable clinicians to allocate scarce, expensive and invasive resources effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 94 infertile couples with negative postcoital tests (PCTs) the results of an in-vitro sperm-mucus invasion test (SMIT) were compared with seminal analysis (excluding sperm density less than 1 x 10(6)/ml) and agglutination assays for antisperm antibodies in semen (MAR, TAT) and in mucus (TAT). Abnormalities at the sperm-mucus interface were classed into three types. (i) Failure to form semen clefts and of spermatozoa to colonize the clefts was closely correlated with oligo-asthenoteratozoospermia, and vice versa, the two tests agreeing in 90% of cases (P less than 0.001). Most of the discrepancies, in which sperm-dense clefts developed despite low sperm counts, were due to antisperm antibodies in semen. (ii) Failure of spermatozoa to invade mucus, despite normal sperm colonization of clefts, was closely correlated with the presence of antisperm antibodies in semen (positive MAR or TAT), and vice versa, the tests agreeing in 81% of cases (P less than 0.001). (iii) Failure of sperm survival after normal invasion of mucus could not be correlated significantly with the TAT results on mucus, but more extensive study of this question is needed. Finally a normal SMIT result was associated with a significantly improved chance of conception (39 versus 10% at 12 months), particularly with artificial insemination, suggesting undisclosed coital failure as the cause of the negative PCT. In conclusion, the invasion test, when assessed in the foregoing detail, offers a reliable and simple substitute for laboratory assessment of both seminal quality and the presence of antisperm antibodies in semen, and would be applicable in general infertility practice everywhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infertile women without any inherent female infertility factors and able to secrete normal cervical mucus were studied prospectively in relation to post-coital sperm-mucus penetration (PCT) and their partner's seminal analysis, excluding men with azoospermia. Time-specific cumulative conception rates calculated as for life-table analysis were related to each measured seminal variable on routine analysis of 2-3 samples (volume, density, proportion with progressive motility, and proportion with normal morphology); to various derivatives from combinations of these variables; to seminal findings after vital staining; and to the PCT results. The best seminal predictor of fertility was the motile normal sperm density (MNSD), the 18 month conception rates being 57.4% +/- 4.6 (SE) and 30.2% +/- 5.9 (ratio 1.9, P less than 0.001) above and below a derived threshold value of 4 x 10(6)/ml. The PCT led to rates of 55.6% +/- 4.3 and 14.9% +/- 5.1 (ratio 3.73, P less than 0.001) for positive and negative results, respectively. The PCT also gave rise to a significantly distinct intermediate poor-positive sub-group (conception rate 30.6% +/- 9.0). Seminal analysis (the MNSD) did not affect the conception rate associated with a positive PCT but helped to discriminate further with a negative PCT (conception rates 22.5% +/- 8.7 with an MNSD above 4 x 10(6)/ml versus 5.6% +/- 4.8 below, P less than 0.05). The PCT was the single best predictor of fertility but seminal analysis (the MNSD) was of additional value after a negative PCT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One-hundred-and-seventy-four patients having hysterosalpingographs during the investigation of infertility have been reviewed to assess the incidence of tubo-cornual polyps and their relation to subsequent pregnancy. Definite polyps were present in 31 (18%) of the patients. There was no significant difference in age or parity in women with and without polyps, nor in associated infertility factors such as tubal occlusion or oligospermia. None of the patients with polyps had endometri-osis. Conception rates in the two groups were not significantly different. The cumulative rates at 18 months with and without polyps were 34.5 ± 13.7% (SE) and 43.6% ± 3.9% respectively in the overall groups, and 36.9% ±24.1% and 59.0% ± 9.1% in the couples with otherwise unexplained infertility. It is concluded that tubo-cornual polyps are not related to infertility and that they should not be treated. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Several letters to the editor and a reply are presented in response to the article "Urinary incontinence in men after formal one-to-one pelvic-floor muscle training following radical prostatectomy or transurethral resection of the prostate (MAPS): two parallel randomised controlled trials," by Cathryn Glazener and colleagues in the 2011 issue of "Lancet."

Objective: To determine the long-term (12-year) effects of a conservative nurse-led intervention for postnatal urinary incontinence., Design: Follow-up of a randomised controlled trial., Setting: Community-based intervention in three centres (in the UK and New Zealand)., Population: A cohort of 747 women with urinary incontinence at 3 months after childbirth, of whom 471 (63%) were followed up after 12 years., Methods: Women were randomly allocated to active conservative treatment after delivery (pelvic floor muscle training and bladder training), or to a control group receiving standard care., Main Outcome Measures: Prevalence of urinary incontinence (primary outcome) and faecal incontinence, symptoms and signs of prolapse, and performance of pelvic floor muscle training at 12 years., Results: The significant improvements relative to controls that had been found in urinary incontinence (60 versus 69%; risk difference, RD, -9.1%; 95% confidence interval, 95% CI, -17.3 to -1.0%) and faecal incontinence (4 versus 11%; RD -6.1%; 95% CI -10.8 to -1.6%) at 1 year did not persist for urinary incontinence (83 versus 80%; RD 2.1%; 95% CI -4.9 to 9.1%) or faecal incontinence (19 versus 15%; RD 4.3%; 95% CI -2.5 to 11.0%) at the 12-year follow up, irrespective of incontinence severity at trial entry. The prevalence of prolapse symptoms or objectively measured pelvic organ prolapse also did not differ between the groups. In the short term the intervention motivated more women to perform pelvic floor muscle training (83 versus 55%), but this fell in both groups by 12 years (52 versus 49%)., Conclusions: The moderate short-term benefits of a brief nurse-led conservative treatment for postnatal urinary incontinence did not persist. About four-fifths of women with urinary incontinence 3 months after childbirth still had this problem 12 years later., (© 2013 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.)

Background: Pelvic organ prolapse may occur in up to 50% of parous women. A variety of urinary, bowel and sexual symptoms may be associated with prolapse., Objectives: To determine the effects of the many different surgeries in the management of pelvic organ prolapse., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group Specialised Trials Register (searched 3 May 2006) and reference lists of relevant articles. We also contacted researchers in the field., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials that included surgical operations for pelvic organ prolapse., Data Collection and Analysis: Trials were assessed and data extracted independently by two reviewers. Six investigators were contacted for additional information with five responding., Main Results: Twenty two randomised controlled trials were identified evaluating 2368 women. Abdominal sacral colpopexy was better than vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy in terms of a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse (RR 0.23, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.77) and less dyspareunia (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.86), but the trend towards a lower re-operation rate for prolapse following abdominal sacrocolpopexy was not statistically significant (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.19 to 1.11). However, the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy was quicker and cheaper to perform and women had an earlier return to activities of daily living. The data were too few to evaluate other clinical outcomes and adverse events. The three trials contributing to this comparison were clinically heterogeneous. For the anterior vaginal wall prolapse, standard anterior repair was associated with more recurrent cystoceles than when supplemented by polyglactin mesh inlay (RR 1.39, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.90) or porcine dermis mesh inlay (RR 2.72, 95% CI 1.20 to 6.14), but data on morbidity, other clinical outcomes and for other mesh or graft materials were too few for reliable comparisons. For posterior vaginal wall prolapse, the vaginal approach was associated with a lower rate of recurrent rectocele and/or enterocele than the transanal approach (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.64), although there was a higher blood loss and postoperative narcotic use. However, data on the effect of surgery on bowel symptoms and the use of polyglactin mesh inlay or porcine small intestine graft inlay on the risk of recurrent rectocele were insufficient for meta-analysis.Meta-analysis on the impact of pelvic organ prolapse surgery on continence issues was limited and inconclusive, although about 10% of women developed new urinary symptoms after surgery. Although the addition of tension-free vaginal tape to endopelvic fascia plication (RR 5.5, 95% CI 1.36 to 22.32) and Burch colposuspension to abdominal sacrocolpopexy (RR 2.13, 95% CI 1.39 to 3.24) were followed by a lower risk of women developing new postoperative stress incontinence, but other outcomes, particularly economic, remain to be evaluated., Authors' Conclusions: Abdominal sacrocolpopexy is associated with a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse and dyspareunia than the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy. These benefits must be balanced against a longer operating time, longer time to return to activities of daily living and increased cost of the abdominal approach. The use of mesh or graft inlays at the time of anterior vaginal wall repair may reduce the risk of recurrent cystocele. Posterior vaginal wall repair may be better than transanal repair in the management of rectoceles in terms of recurrence of prolapse. The addition of a continence procedure to a prolapse repair operation may reduce the incidence of postoperative urinary incontinence but this benefit needs to be balanced against possible differences in costs and adverse effects. Adequately powered randomised controlled clinical trials are urgently needed., (Copyright 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Background: Pelvic organ prolapse may occur in up to 50% of parous women. A variety of urinary, bowel and sexual symptoms may be associated with prolapse., Objectives: To determine the effects of the many different surgeries in the management of pelvic organ prolapse., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group Specialised Trials Register (searched 3 May 2006) and reference lists of relevant articles. We also contacted researchers in the field., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials that included surgical operations for pelvic organ prolapse., Data Collection and Analysis: Trials were assessed and data extracted independently by two reviewers. Six investigators were contacted for additional information with five responding., Main Results: Twenty two randomised controlled trials were identified evaluating 2368 women. Abdominal sacral colpopexy was better than vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy in terms of a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse (RR 0.23, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.77) and less dyspareunia (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.86), but the trend towards a lower re-operation rate for prolapse following abdominal sacrocolpopexy was not statistically significant (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.19 to 1.11). However, the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy was quicker and cheaper to perform and women had an earlier return to activities of daily living. The data were too few to evaluate other clinical outcomes and adverse events. The three trials contributing to this comparison were clinically heterogeneous. For the anterior vaginal wall prolapse, standard anterior repair was associated with more recurrent cystoceles than when supplemented by polyglactin mesh inlay (RR 1.39, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.90) or porcine dermis mesh inlay (RR 2.72, 95% CI 1.20 to 6.14), but data on morbidity, other clinical outcomes and for other mesh or graft materials were too few for reliable comparisons. For posterior vaginal wall prolapse, the vaginal approach was associated with a lower rate of recurrent rectocele and/or enterocele than the transanal approach (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.64), although there was a higher blood loss and postoperative narcotic use. However, data on the effect of surgery on bowel symptoms and the use of polyglactin mesh inlay or porcine small intestine graft inlay on the risk of recurrent rectocele were insufficient for meta-analysis.Meta-analysis on the impact of pelvic organ prolapse surgery on continence issues was limited and inconclusive, although about 10% of women developed new urinary symptoms after surgery. Although the addition of tension-free vaginal tape to endopelvic fascia plication (RR 5.5, 95% CI 1.36 to 22.32) and Burch colposuspension to abdominal sacrocolpopexy (RR 2.13, 95% CI 1.39 to 3.24) were followed by a lower risk of women developing new postoperative stress incontinence, but other outcomes, particularly economic, remain to be evaluated., Authors' Conclusions: Abdominal sacrocolpopexy is associated with a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse and dyspareunia than the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy. These benefits must be balanced against a longer operating time, longer time to return to activities of daily living and increased cost of the abdominal approach. The use of mesh or graft inlays at the time of anterior vaginal wall repair may reduce the risk of recurrent cystocele. Posterior vaginal wall repair may be better than transanal repair in the management of rectoceles in terms of recurrence of prolapse. The addition of a continence procedure to a prolapse repair operation may reduce the incidence of postoperative urinary incontinence but this benefit needs to be balanced against possible differences in costs and adverse effects. Adequately powered randomised controlled clinical trials are urgently needed.

Background: Urinary incontinence is common after both radical prostatectomy (RP) and transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). Conservative management includes pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) with or without biofeedback, electrical stimulation, compression devices (penile clamps), lifestyle changes, extra-corporeal magnetic innervation or a combination of methods., Objectives: To assess the effects of conservative management for urinary incontinence after prostatectomy., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group Specialised Trials Register (searched 23 January 2006), MEDLINE (January 1966 to January 2006), EMBASE (January 1988 to January 2006), CINAHL (January 1982 to January 2006), PsycLIT (January 1984 to January 2006), ERIC (January 1984 to January 2006), the reference lists of relevant articles, handsearched conference proceedings and contacted investigators to locate studies., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials evaluating conservative interventions for urinary continence after prostatectomy., Data Collection and Analysis: At least two review authors assessed the methodological quality of trials and abstracted data., Main Results: Seventeen trials met the inclusion criteria, fifteen trials amongst men after radical prostatectomy (RP), one trial after transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) and one trial after either operation. There was considerable variation in the interventions, populations and outcome measures. The majority of trials in this area continue to be of moderate quality, although more recent studies have been of higher quality in terms of both randomization and blinding. Data were not available in all the trials for many of the pre-stated outcomes. Confidence intervals have tended to be wide except for the more recent studies, and it continues to be difficult to reliably identify or rule out a useful effect. There were several important variations in the populations being studied. Therefore the decision was made by the review authors to separate in the analysis the men having the intervention as prevention (whether administered before or after operation, to all men having surgery) or as treatment (postoperatively to those men who did have urinary incontinence), as well as separating those treated with TURP or RP. Amongst seven treatment trials of postoperative PFMT for urinary incontinence after RP, one trial suggested benefits, whereas the estimates from the others were consistent with no effect. There was clinical and statistical heterogeneity, precluding meta-analysis. There was no clear reason for this heterogeneity. Trials of preventative PFMT started pre or post-operatively also showed heterogeneity: only one large trial favoured PFMT but the data from the others were conflicting. Analysis of other conservative interventions such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and anal electrical stimulation, or combinations of these interventions were inconclusive. There were too few data to determine treatment effects on incontinence after TURP. The findings should continue to be treated with caution, as most studies were of poor to moderate quality. With respect to other management, men in one trial reported a preference for one type of external compression device compared to two others or no treatment. The effect of other conservative interventions such as lifestyle changes remains undetermined as no trials involving these interventions were identified. Men's symptoms tended to improve over time, irrespective of management., Authors' Conclusions: The value of the various approaches to conservative management of postprostatectomy incontinence remains uncertain. Long-term incontinence may be managed by external penile clamp, but there are safety problems.

Background: Adrenergic drugs have been used for the treatment of urinary incontinence. However, they have generally been considered to be ineffective or to have side effects which may limit their clinical use., Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of adrenergic agonists in the treatment of urinary incontinence in adults., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group specialised trials register (searched 9 March 2005) and the reference lists of relevant articles., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials in adults with urinary incontinence which included an adrenergic agonist drug in at least one arm of the trial., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed eligibility, trial quality and extracted data. Data were processed as described in the Cochrane Reviewers' Handbook., Main Results: Twenty-two eligible randomised trials were identified, of which 11 were crossover trials. The trials included 1099 women with 673 receiving an adrenergic drug (phenylpropanolamine in 11 trials, midodrine in two, norepinephrine in three, clenbuterol in another three, terbutaline in one, eskornade in one and Ro-115-1240 in one). No trials included men. The limited evidence suggested that an adrenergic agonist drug is better than placebo in reducing the number of pad changes and incontinence episodes, as well as improving subjective symptoms. In two small trials, the drugs also appeared to be better than pelvic floor muscle training, possibly reflecting relative acceptability of the treatments to women but perhaps due to differential withdrawal of women from the trial groups. There was not enough evidence to evaluate the use of higher compared to lower doses of adrenergic agonists nor the relative merits of an adrenergic agonist drug compared with oestrogen, whether used alone or in combination. Over a quarter of women reported adverse effects. There were similar numbers of adverse effects with adrenergics, placebo or alternative drug treatment. However, when these were due to recognised adrenergic stimulation (insomnia, restlessness and vasomotor stimulation) they were only severe enough to stop treatment in 4% of women., Authors' Conclusions: There was weak evidence to suggest that use of an adrenergic agonist was better than placebo treatment. There was not enough evidence to assess the effects of adrenergic agonists when compared to or combined with other treatments. Further larger trials are needed to identify when adrenergics may be useful. Patients using adrenergic agonists may suffer from minor side effects, which sometimes cause them to stop treatment. Rare but serious side effects, such as cardiac arrhythmias and hypertension, have been reported.

Background: Enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15 to 20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults., Objectives: To assess the effects of alarm interventions on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare alarms with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group specialised trials register (searched 22 November 2004) and the reference lists of relevant articles., Selection Criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials of alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children were included, except those focused solely on daytime wetting. Comparison interventions included no treatment, simple and complex behavioural methods, desmopressin, tricyclics, and miscellaneous other methods., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data., Main Results: Fifty five trials met the inclusion criteria, involving 3152 children of whom 2345 used an alarm. The quality of many trials was poor, and evidence for many comparisons was inadequate. Most alarms used audio methods. Compared to no treatment, about two thirds of children became dry during alarm use (RR for failure 0.38, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.45). Nearly half who persisted with alarm use remained dry after treatment finished, compared to almost none after no treatment (RR of failure or relapse 45/81 (55%) vs 80/81 (99%), RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.68). There was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions about different types of alarm, or about how alarms compare to other behavioural interventions. Relapse rates were lower when overlearning was added to alarm treatment (RR 1.92, 95% CI 1.27 to 2.92) or if dry bed training was used as well (RR 2.0, 95% CI 1.25 to 3.20). Penalties for wet beds appeared to be counter-productive. Alarms using electric shocks were unacceptable to children or their parents. Although desmopressin may have a more immediate effect, alarms appear more effective by the end of a course of treatment (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.99) and there was limited evidence of greater long-term success (4/22 (18%) vs 16/24 (67%), RR 0.27, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.69). Evidence about the benefit of supplementing alarm treatment with desmopressin was conflicting. Alarms were better than tricyclics during treatment (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.88) and afterwards (7/12 (58%) vs 12/12 (100%), RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.94)., Authors' Conclusions: Alarm interventions are an effective treatment for nocturnal bedwetting in children. Alarms appear more effective than desmopressin or tricyclics by the end of treatment, and subsequently. Overlearning (giving extra fluids at bedtime after successfully becoming dry using an alarm), dry bed training and avoiding penalties may further reduce the relapse rate. Better quality research comparing alarms with other treatments is needed, including follow-up to determine relapse rates.

Background: Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15 to 20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults., Objectives: To assess the effects of complementary interventions and others such as surgery or diet on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare them with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group Specialised Register (searched 22 November 2004), the Traditional Chinese Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (TCMLARS) (January 1984 to June 2004) and the reference lists of relevant articles., Selection Criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials of complementary and other miscellaneous interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children were included except those focused solely on daytime wetting. Comparison interventions could include no treatment, placebo or sham treatment, alarms, simple behavioural treatment, desmopressin, imipramine and miscellaneous other drugs and interventions., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data., Main Results: In 15 randomised controlled trials, 1389 children were studied, of whom 703 received a complementary intervention. The quality of the trials was poor: four trials were quasi-randomised, five showed differences at baseline and ten lacked follow up data. The outcome was better after hypnosis than imipramine in one trial (relative risk (RR) for failure or relapse after stopping treatment 0.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.23 to 0.78). Psychotherapy appeared to be better in terms of fewer children failing or relapsing than both alarm (RR 0.28, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.85) and rewards (0.29, 95% 0.09 to 0.90) but this depended on data from only one trial. Acupuncture had better results than sham control acupuncture (RR for failure or relapse after stopping treatment 0.67, 95% CI 0.48 to 0.94) in a further trial. Active chiropractic adjustment had better results than sham adjustment (RR for failure or relapse after stopping treatment 0.74, 95% CI 0.60 to 0.91). However, each of these findings came from small single trials, and need to be verified in further trials. The findings for diet and faradization were unreliable, and there were no trials including homeopathy or surgery., Authors' Conclusions: There was weak evidence to support the use of hypnosis, psychotherapy, acupuncture and chiropractic but it was provided in each case by single small trials, some of dubious methodological rigour. Robust randomised trials are required with efficacy, cost-effectiveness and adverse effects carefully monitored.

Background: Pelvic organ prolapse may occur in up to 50% of parous women. A variety of urinary, bowel and sexual symptoms may be associated with prolapse., Objectives: To determine the effects of surgery in the management of pelvic organ prolapse., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (8 June 2004) and reference lists of relevant articles. We also contacted researchers in the field., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials that included surgical operations for pelvic organ prolapse., Data Collection and Analysis: Trials were assessed and data extracted independently by at least two reviewers. Four investigators were contacted for additional information with two responding., Main Results: Fourteen randomised controlled trials were identified evaluating 1004 women. Abdominal sacral colpopexy was better than vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy in terms of a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse (RR 0.23, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.77) and less dyspareunia (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.86), but the trend towards a lower re-operation rate for prolapse following abdominal sacrocolpopexy was not statistically significant (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.19 to 1.11). However, the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy was quicker and cheaper to perform and women had an earlier return to activities of daily living. The data were to evaluate other clinical outcomes and adverse events. For the anterior vaginal wall prolapse, standard anterior repair was associated with more recurrent cystoceles than when supplemented by Vicryl mesh overlay (RR 1.39, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.90) but data on morbidity and other clinical outcomes were too few for reliable comparisons. For posterior vaginal wall prolapse, the vaginal approach was associated with a lower rate of recurrent rectocele and/or enterocele than the transanal approach (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.64), although there was a higher blood loss and postoperative narcotic use. However, data on the effect of surgery on bowel symptoms and the use of polyglactin mesh overlay on the risk of recurrent rectocele were insufficient for meta-analysis.Meta-analysis on the impact of pelvic organ prolapse surgery on continence issues was limited and inconclusive, although about 10% of women developed new symptoms after surgery. However, more women with occult stress urinary incontinence developed postoperative stress urinary incontinence after endopelvic fascia plication alone than after endopelvic fascia plication and tension-free vaginal tape (RR 5.5, 95% CI 1.36 to 22.32)., Reviewers' Conclusions: Abdominal sacrocolpopexy is associated with a lower rate of recurrent vault prolapse and dyspareunia than the vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy. These benefits must be balanced against a longer operating time, longer time to return to activities of daily living and increased cost of the abdominal approach. The use of a polyglactin mesh overlay at the time of anterior vaginal wall repair may reduce the risk of recurrent cystocele. Posterior vaginal wall repair may be better than transanal repair in the management of rectoceles in terms of recurrence of prolapse. Adequately powered randomised controlled clinical trials are urgently needed.

Background: Urinary incontinence is common after both radical prostatectomy and transurethral resection. Conservative management includes pelvic floor muscle training, biofeedback, electrical stimulation, compression devices (penile clamps), lifestyle changes, extra-corporeal magnetic innervation or a combination of methods., Objectives: To assess the effects of conservative managements for urinary incontinence prostatectomy., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (searched 2 July 2003), MEDLINE (January 1966 to January 2004), EMBASE (January 1988 to January 2004), CINAHL (January 1982 to January 2004), PsycLIT (January 1984 to January 2004), ERIC (January 1984 to January 2004), the reference lists of relevant articles, handsearched conference proceedings and contacted investigators to locate studies., Selection Criteria: Randomised controlled trials evaluating conservative interventions for urinary continence after prostatectomy., Data Collection and Analysis: At least two reviewers assessed the methodological quality of trials and abstracted data., Main Results: Ten trials met the inclusion criteria, eight trials amongst men after radical prostatectomy, one trial after transurethral resection of prostate and one after either operation. There was considerable variation in the interventions, populations and outcome measures. The trials were of moderate quality and data were not available for many of the pre-stated outcomes. Confidence intervals were wide: it was not possible to reliably identify or rule out a useful effect. There was some support from five trials for pelvic floor muscle training with biofeedback being better than no treatment or sham treatment in the short term for men after radical prostatectomy: relative risk for incontinence with pelvic floor muscle training and biofeedback versus no treatment: 0.74 (95% confidence interval 0.60 to 0.93). Analysis of other conservative interventions such as pelvic floor muscle training alone, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and rectal electrical stimulation, or combinations of these interventions were inconclusive. There were too few data to determine effects on incontinence after transurethral resection of the prostate. The findings should be treated with caution as there were few studies, all of moderate quality. Men in one trial reported a preference for one type of external compression device compared to two others or no treatment. The effect of other conservative interventions such as lifestyle changes remains undetermined as no trials involving these interventions were identified. Men's symptoms tended to improve over time, irrespective of management., Reviewers' Conclusions: The value of the various approaches to conservative management of postprostatectomy incontinence remains uncertain. There may be some benefit of offering pelvic floor muscle training with biofeedback early in the postoperative period immediately following removal of the catheter as it may promote an earlier return to continence. Long-term incontinence may be managed by external penile clamp, but there are safety problems.

Background: Bladder neck needle suspension is an operation traditionally used for moderate or severe stress urinary incontinence in women. About a third of adult women experience some urinary incontinence, and about a third of them have moderate or severe symptoms., Objectives: To determine the effects of needle suspension on stress or mixed urinary incontinence in comparison with other management options., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (searched 18 September 2003). The reference lists of relevant articles were also searched., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised trials that included needle suspension for the treatment of urinary incontinence., Data Collection and Analysis: Trials were assessed and data extracted independently by at least two reviewers. Two trial investigators provided additional information., Main Results: Nine trials were identified which included 347 women having six different types of needle suspension procedures and 437 who received comparison interventions. Needle suspensions were more likely to fail than open abdominal retropubic suspension (higher subjective failure rate after the first year (91/313, 29% failed versus 47/297, 16% failed after open abdominal retropubic suspension: the relative risk (RR) was 2.00 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.47 to 2.72) although the difference in peri-operative complications was not significant (17/75, 23% versus 12/77, 16%; RR 1.44, 95% CI 0.73 to 2.83): there were no significant differences for other outcome measures. This effect was seen in both women with primary incontinence and women with recurrent incontinence after failed primary operations. Needle suspensions may be as effective as anterior vaginal repair (46/128, 36% failed after needles versus 50/129, 39% after anterior repair; RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.26) but there was little information about morbidity. Data for comparison with suburethral slings were inconclusive because they came from a small and atypical population. No trials compared needle suspensions with conservative management, peri-urethral injections, sham or laparoscopic surgery., Reviewers' Conclusions: Bladder neck needle suspension surgery is probably not as good as open abdominal retropubic suspension for the treatment of primary and secondary urodynamic stress incontinence because the cure rates were lower in the trials reviewed. However, the reliability of the evidence was limited by poor quality and small trials. There was not enough information to comment on comparisons with suburethral sling operations. Although cure rates were similar after needle suspension compared with after anterior vaginal repair, the data were insufficient to be reliable and inadequate to compare morbidity.

Background: Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15-20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults. Although there is a high rate of spontaneous remission, the social, emotional and psychological costs can be great. Simple behavioural methods of treating bedwetting include reward systems such as star charts given for dry nights, lifting or waking the children at night to urinate, retention control training to enlarge bladder capacity (bladder training) and fluid restriction., Objectives: To assess the effects of simple behavioural interventions on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare these with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (searched 18 September 2003). The reference list of a previous version of this review was also searched., Selection Criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials of simple behavioural interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children up to the age of 16. Trials focused solely on daytime wetting were excluded., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials and extracted data., Main Results: Thirteen trials met the inclusion criteria, involving 702 children of whom 387 received a simple behavioural intervention. However, within each comparison each outcome was addressed by single trials only, precluding meta-analysis. In single small trials, reward systems (e.g. star charts), lifting and waking were each associated with significantly fewer wet nights, higher cure rates and lower relapse rates compared to controls. There was not enough evidence to evaluate retention control training (bladder training), whether compared with controls or dry bed training, or used as a supplement to alarms, or versus desmopressin. Cognitive therapy may have lower failure and relapse rates than star charts, but this finding was based on one small trial only. One small trial of poor quality suggested that star charts were initially less successful than amitriptyline but this difference did not persist after the treatments stopped. Another suggested that imipramine was better than fluid deprivation and avoidance of punishment., Reviewers' Conclusions: Simple behavioural methods may be effective for some children, but further trials are needed, in particular in comparison with treatments known to be effective, such as desmopressin, tricyclic drugs and alarms. However, simple methods could be tried as first line therapy before considering alarms or drugs, because these alternative treatments may be more demanding and may have adverse effects.

Background: Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15-20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults., Objectives: To assess the effects of complex behavioural and educational interventions on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare them with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (December 2002) and the reference lists of relevant articles. Date of the most recent searches: December 2002., Selection Criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials of complex behavioural or educational interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children were included, except those focused solely on daytime wetting. Comparison interventions included no treatment, simple and physical behavioural methods, alarms, desmopressin, tricyclics, and miscellaneous other interventions., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data., Main Results: Sixteen trials involving 1081 children were identified which included a complex or educational intervention for nocturnal enuresis. The trials were mostly small and some had methodological problems including the use of a quasi-randomised method of concealment of allocation in three trials and baseline differences between the groups in another three.A complex intervention (such as dry bed training (DBT) or full spectrum home training (FSHT)) including an alarm was better than no-treatment control groups (eg RR for failure or relapse after stopping DBT 0.25; 95% CI 0.16 to 0.39) but there was not enough evidence about the effects of complex interventions alone if an alarm was not used. A complex intervention on its own was not as good as an alarm on its own or the intervention supplemented by an alarm (eg RR for failure or relapse after DBT alone versus DBT plus alarm 2.81; 95% CI 1.80 to 4.38). On the other hand, a complex intervention supplemented by a bed alarm might reduce the relapse rate compared with the alarm on its own (eg RR for failure or relapse after DBT plus alarm versus alarm alone 0.5; 95% CI 0.31 to 0.80).There was not enough evidence to judge whether providing educational information about enuresis was effective, irrespective of method of delivery. There was some evidence that direct contact between families and therapists enhanced the effect of a complex intervention, and that increased contact and support enhanced a package of simple behavioural interventions, but these were addressed only in single trials and the results would need to be confirmed by further randomised controlled trials, in particular the effect on use of resources., Reviewer's Conclusions: Although DBT and FSHT were better than no treatment when used in combination with an alarm, there was insufficient evidence to support their use without an alarm. An alarm on its own was also better than DBT on its own, but there was some evidence that combining an alarm with DBT was better than an alarm on its own, suggesting that DBT may augment the effect of an alarm. There was also some evidence that direct contact with a therapist might enhance the effects of an intervention.

Background: Enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially disruptive and stressful condition which affects around 15-20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults., Objectives: To assess the effects of tricyclic and related drugs on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare them with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (December 2002) and the reference lists of relevant articles including two previously published versions of this review. Date of the most recent searches: December 2002., Selection Criteria: All randomised and quasi-randomised trials of tricyclics or related drugs for nocturnal enuresis in children were included in the review. Comparison interventions included placebo, other drugs, alarms, behavioural methods or complementary/miscellaneous interventions. Trials focused solely on daytime wetting were excluded., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials, and extracted data., Main Results: Fifty four randomised trials met the inclusion criteria, involving 3379 children. The quality of many of the trials was poor. Most comparisons or outcomes were addressed only by single trials. Treatment with most tricyclic drugs (such as imipramine, amitriptyline, viloxazine, nortriptyline, clomipramine and desipramine) was associated with a reduction of about one wet night per week while on treatment (eg imipramine compared with placebo, weighted mean difference (WMD) -1.19, 95% CI -1.56 to -0.82). The exception was mianserin, where results from one small trial did not reach statistical significance. About a fifth of the children became dry while on treatment (relative risk for failure (RR) 0.77, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.83), but this effect was not sustained after treatment stopped (eg imipramine versus placebo, RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.95 to 1.03). There was not enough information to assess the relative performance of one tricyclic against another, except that imipramine was better than mianserin. The evidence comparing desmopressin with tricyclics was unreliable or conflicting, but in one small trial all the children failed or relapsed after stopping active treatment with either drug.The evidence comparing tricyclics with alarms was also unreliable or conflicting during treatment. In one small trial all the children failed or relapsed after tricyclics stopped, compared with about half after alarms. This result was compatible with the results in the Cochrane review of alarm treatment, which found that about half the children remained dry after alarm treatment was finished. There was a little evidence from single trials to suggest that imipramine might be better than a simple reward system with star charts during treatment; worse than a complex intervention involving education, counseling, waking and retention control training; better than a restricted diet; and worse than hypnosis. However, these results need to be confirmed by further research., Reviewer's Conclusions: Although tricyclics and desmopressin are effective in reducing the number of wet nights while taking the drugs, most children relapse after stopping active treatment. In contrast, only half the children relapse after alarm treatment. Parents should be warned of the potentially serious adverse effects of tricyclic overdose when choosing treatment. Further research is needed into comparisons between drug and behavioural or complementary treatments, and should include relapse rates after treatment is finished.

Background: Faecal incontinence is a common symptom which causes significant distress and reduction in quality of life. Available treatment options for faecal incontinence include conservative treatments (biofeedback, pelvic floor muscle training, dietary manipulation or drug therapy) or surgical treatments (e.g. sphincter repair, post anal repair, neosphincter). Drug treatment is often given either alone or in combination with other treatment modalities., Objectives: To assess the effects of drug therapy for the treatment of faecal incontinence. In particular, to assess the effects of individual drugs relative to placebo or other drugs, and to compare drug therapy with other treatment modalities., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (January 2003) and the reference lists of relevant articles. Date of the most recent search: January 2003., Selection Criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials of the use of pharmacological agents for the treatment of faecal incontinence in adults., Data Collection and Analysis: Working independently, reviewers selected studies from the literature, assessed the methodological quality of each trial, and extracted data., Main Results: Eleven trials were identified for inclusion in this review. Nine trials were of cross-over design. Seven trials included only people with faecal incontinence related to liquid stool (either chronic diarrhoea or following ileoanal pouch surgery). Three trials (total 58 participants) compared topical phenylephrine gel with placebo. Two trials (56 participants) compared loperamide with placebo. One trial (11 participants) compared loperamide oxide with placebo. One trial (15 participants) compared diphenoxylate plus atropine with placebo. One trial (17 participants) compared sodium valproate with placebo. One trial (30 participants) compared loperamide with codeine with diphenoxylate plus atropine. Two further trials (total 265 participants) assessed the use of lactulose in elderly people.No studies comparing drugs with other treatment modalities were identified. There was limited evidence that antidiarrhoeal drugs and drugs which enhance anal sphincter tone may reduce faecal incontinence in patients with liquid stools. However, the trials were small and of short duration., Reviewer's Conclusions: The small number of trials identified for this review assessed several different drugs in a variety of patient populations. The focus of most of the included trials was on the treatment of diarrhoea, rather than faecal incontinence. There is little evidence to guide clinicians in the selection of drug therapies for faecal incontinence. Larger, well-designed controlled trials, which include clinically important outcome measures, are required.

Background: Adrenergic drugs have been used for the treatment of urinary incontinence. However, they have generally been considered to be ineffective or to have side effects which may limit their clinical use., Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of adrenergic agonists in the treatment of urinary incontinence in adults., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register (January 2002) and the reference lists of relevant articles. Date of the most recent searches: January 2002., Selection Criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials which include an adrenergic agonist drug in at least one arm for adults with urinary incontinence., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed eligibility, trial quality and extracted data. Data were processed as described in the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook., Main Results: Fifteen randomised trials were identified, which included 832 women, of whom 506 received an adrenergic drug (phenylpropanolamine in 11 trials, Midodrine in two and Clenbuterol in another two). Of these, six were crossover trials. No trials included men. The limited evidence suggested that an adrenergic agonist drug is better than placebo in reducing number of pad changes and incontinence episodes, as well as improvement in subjective symptoms. The drugs also appeared to be better than pelvic floor muscle training in two small trials, possibly reflecting relative acceptability of the treatments to women but perhaps due to differential withdrawal of women from the trial groups. There was not enough evidence to evaluate the use of higher compared to lower doses of adrenergic agonists nor the relative merits of an adrenergic agonist drug compared with oestrogen, whether used alone or in combination., Reviewer's Conclusions: There was weak evidence to suggest that use of an adrenergic agonist is better than placebo treatment. There was not enough evidence to assess the effects of adrenergic agonists when compared to or combined with other treatments. Patients using adrenergic agonists may suffer from minor side effects, only occasionally leading them to stop treatment. Rare but serious side effects such as cardiac arrhythmias and hypertension have been reported, however.

Background: Enuresis (bedwetting) is a socially stigmatising and stressful condition which affects around 15-20% of five year olds, and up to 2% of young adults. Although there is a high rate of spontaneous remission, the social, emotional and psychological costs to the children can be great., Objectives: To assess the effects of drugs other than desmopressin and tricyclics on nocturnal enuresis in children, and to compare them with other interventions., Search Strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group trials register. Date of the most recent search: December 2002. The reference list of a previous version of this review was also searched., Selection Criteria: All randomised trials of drugs (excluding desmopressin or tricyclics) for nocturnal enuresis in children were included in the review. Trials were eligible for inclusion if children were randomised to receive drugs compared with placebo, other drugs or other conservative interventions for nocturnal bedwetting. Trials focused solely on daytime wetting were excluded., Data Collection and Analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of the eligible trials and extracted data., Main Results: In 32 randomised controlled trials (25 new in this update), a total of 1225 out of 1613 children received an active drug other than desmopressin or a tricyclic. In all, 28 different drugs or classes of drugs were tested, but the trials were generally small or of poor methodological quality (five were quasi-randomised and the remainder failed to give adequate details about the randomisation process). Although indomethacin and diclofenac were better than placebo during treatment, desmopressin was better than both of them, with less chance of adverse effects. There were no data regarding what happened after treatment stopped. Limited data suggested that an alarm was better than drugs during treatment., Reviewer's Conclusions: There was not enough evidence to judge whether the included drugs reduced bedwetting. There was limited evidence to suggest that desmopressin, imipramine and alarms were better than the drugs to which they were compared. In other reviews, desmopressin, tricyclics and alarm interventions have been shown to be effective.