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The article provides a rationale for a governance approach that moves away from process-based regulation and uses molecular techniques that enable detailed characterization of new crops and foods themselves. Topics include a report from the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) on genetically engineered crops, a European Union (EU) government study of its regulations for gene editing, and factors used by some countries to determine the need for safety testing.

Following a request of the European Commission, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reviewed the scientific arguments raised by the non‐governmental organisation Testbiotechrequestingthe review of Commission Implementing Decisions (EU) No 2021/66, 2021/61 and 2021/65, authorising the placing on the market of products containing, consisting of or produced from the four‐event stack soybean MON 87751 × MON 87701 × MON 87708 × MON 89788 (application EFSA‐GMO‐NL‐2016‐128), the five‐event stack maize MON 87427 × MON 87460 × MON 89034 × MIR162 × NK603 and its subcombinations (application EFSA‐GMO‐NL‐2016‐134) and the four‐event stack maize MON 87427 × MON 89034 × MIR162 × MON 87411 and its subcombinations (application EFSA‐GMO‐NL‐2017‐144).In relation to the four‐event stack soybean and the five‐event stack maize, Testbiotech argued that the risk assessment performed by the EFSA Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (EFSA GMO Panel) is insufficientas regards molecular characterisation, comparative analyses, toxicological and allergenicity assessment and environmental assessment. For the four‐event stack maize,Testbiotechclaims that the risk assessment performed by the EFSA GMO Panel is inadequateconsidering the general knowledge gaps in the assessment of RNAi‐based GM plants.EFSA's assessment focuses on scientific elements and does not cover legal aspects, as they are not in EFSA's remit and not in the frame of the mandate received from the EC. The assessment of the scientific arguments provided in the technical background of the three requests does not give enough justification to support the re‐examination of theEFSA GMO Panelrisk assessment conclusions and risk management recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thai jasmine rice is one of the prominent agricultural products of Thailand. Although it has made high export value for the country, the annual crop yield is limited by its photoperiod sensitivity and low disease resistance. Aiming to improve the rice traits, ion beam-induced genetic modification technique had been applied to the original jasmine rice, resulting in five selected agriculturally stable mutants. To overcome the complexity of conventional chemical test, we utilise the synchrotron-radiation-based FTIR microspectroscopy to investigate the main biochemical contents of rice samples. The infrared spectra were analysed to extract information on interesting components, including relative content quantification. Classification of rice traits based on spectroscopic data was performed by using principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA analysis results of the measured spectra in the carbohydrate region suggest that the mutant rice traits HyKOS3 and HyKOS3-1 are well separated from the original KDML105 rice. In contrast, the mutant rice traits HyKOS21 and HyKOS22 are seem to be inseparable from the original trait. The peak ratio of the crystallinity (1047 cm - 1 /1022 cm - 1 ) for HyKOS21 shows significantly higher degree of order in the starch granule than the KDML105 rice. The results clearly demonstrate the differences and similarities between rice cultivars, showing the interest of using this technique as a preliminary examination for genetically modified biological samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Poverty eradication and global food security are among the targets of world leaders, most especially combating the scourge of hidden hunger. Provitamin A carotenoids cannot be synthesized de novo by human and so it must be taken as part of the diet. The deficiency of which is causing almost 6000 sights to be lost daily in most developing countries because of the monotonous starchy diets lacking substantial amount of carotenoid. Conventional breeding as well as genetic engineering have been used to increase the level of carotenoid in many staples including rice, potato, maize and cassava. While products from genetic engineering are still been subjected to strict regulatory measures preventing the delivery of the products to target consumers, some of the products from conventional breeding are already on the table of consumers. Interestingly, both technologies are crucial to tackling micronutrient deficiencies. This review discusses the role of carotenoid in human, the biosynthesis in plant and some of the staple crops that have been modified for increased carotenoid. Some measures expected of the leaders of the countries in need of these products for safe delivery to the target population after two decades is also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the role of genetic engineering in food production. Example of genetic engineering for food is the rapid production of a Japanese variety of wheat called Norin 10. Using these genes, short-stemmed wheat varieties have been engineered to yield more harvestable grain under intensive cultivation. Generally, the job of a genetic engineer is to define his objectives and manipulates the plant materials available to realize his goals and those of the society. Since the discovery of the potential of this wheat variety, many countries have imported the said variety for production. The author says that genetic engineering of the major food grains is indeed beneficial to all; however, it also should be complemented with the implementation of population control.

Grain-filling ability is one of the factors that controls grain yield in rice (Oryza sativa L.). We developed a method for describing grain weight distribution, which is the probability density function of single grain weight in a panicle, using 128 Japanese rice varieties. With this method, we quantitively analyzed genotypic differences in grain-filling ability and used the grain weight distribution parameters for genomic prediction subject to genetic improvement in grain yield in rice. The novel description method could represent the observed grain weight distribution with five genotype-specific parameters of a mixture of two gamma distributions. The estimated genotype-specific parameters representing the proportion of filled grains had applicability to explain the grain filling ability of genotypes comparable to that of sink-filling rate and the conventionally measured proportion of filled grains, which suggested the efficiency and flexibility of grain weight distribution parameters to handle several genotypes. We revealed that perfectly filled grains have to be prioritized over partially filled grains for the optimum allocation of the source of yield in a panicle, from the analysis for obtaining an ideal shape of grain weight distribution. We conducted genomic prediction of grain weight distribution considering five genotype-specific parameters of the distribution as phenotypes relating to grain filling ability. The proportion of filled grains, average weight of filled grains, and variance of filled grain weight, which were considered to control grain yield to a certain degree, were predicted with accuracies of 0.30, 0.28, and 0.53, respectively. The proposed description method of grain weight distribution facilitated not only the investigation of the optimum allocation of nutrients in a panicle for realizing high grain-filling ability, but also allowed genomic selection of grain weight distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Genes encoding enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis has been already isolated. • Genetic transformations of the model plants by these genes opened the way for the genetic modification of PUFAs in oilseed plant species. • Synthetic biology can overcome gaps in PUFAs biosynthesis also in cereals. • Successful modifications of the ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA pathways have been succeeded also in main cereals. • Transgenic plants producing some PUFAs can produce oil similar with the standard fish oil. Abstract Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids with more than two double bonds and length of carbon chain 18–22 must be taken in the diet to prevent diseases and imbalances caused by their deficiency. Terrestrial sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids are limited to only a few plant species whose large-scale cultivation is not possible and the production of their seeds and oil is ineffective. The complete biosynthetic pathway of fatty acids is known in organisms, including plants. After the first gene encoding the enzyme catalysing the initial steps of PUFA biosynthesis (ω-3 desaturase, Δ6-desaturase) were isolated, isolation of other genes encoding relevant enzymes of the PUFA pathway from different donor organisms followed. Genetic transformations of model plants by the desaturase- and elongase-encoding genes opened the way for the genetic engineering of oilseed crop species. Some of the developed transgenic plants produced PUFAs, including eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Seed oils extracted from them were similar to fish oil. Tools of the synthetic biology can be applied in modifications of the PUFA pathway and also in overcoming of limitations when the gene and its expression product are absent in the pathway. Such progress in cereals (barley, wheat, maize) has been made only recently, when the first successful modifications of the ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA pathways succeeded. This review focuses on genetic modifications of the PUFA biosynthetic pathway in cereals in relation to the status reached in model plants and oilseed crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distinguishing accessions by their similarity is important for genetic improvement, given their usefulness for increasing and preserving the genetic diversity of crops. Some studies have assessed the similarity between accessions of Jatropha curcas from different regions or origins, but it is not yet clear how the similarity between accessions behaves in crosses, when different accessions are selected as maternal or paternal parents. Thus, this work used ISSR molecular markers to evaluate accessions resulting from the crossing of six parents of different origins. Of the 15 crosses studied, 7 (46%) had greater similarity with their paternal parent, 2 (13%) had greater similarity with the maternal parent and 6 (41%) showed no close similarity to any parent. These results suggest that the similarity between accessions derived from crossings is similar to that found in species such as Gossypium hirsutum , and several cycles of retro-crossing would be needed to maintain the characteristics of a maternal parent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first decade of genetic engineering primarily focused on quantitative crop improvement. With the advances in technology, the focus of agricultural biotechnology has shifted toward both quantitative and qualitative crop improvement, to deal with the challenges of food security and nutrition. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a solanaceous food crop having potential to feed the populating world. It can provide more carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins per unit area of land as compared to other potential food crops, and is the major staple food in many developing countries. These aspects have driven the scientific attention to engineer potato for nutrition improvement, keeping the yield unaffected. Several studies have shown the improved nutritional value of potato tubers, for example by enhancing Amaranth Albumin-1 seed protein content, vitamin C content, β-carotene level, triacylglycerol, tuber methionine content, and amylose content, etc. Removal of anti-nutritional compounds like steroidal glycoalkaloids, acrylamide and food toxins is another research priority for scientists and breeders to improve potato tuber quality. Trait improvement using genetic engineering mostly involved the generation of transgenic products. The commercialization of these engineered products has been a challenge due to consumer preference and regulatory/ethical restrictions. In this context, new breeding technolgies like TALEN (transcription activator-like effector nucleases) and CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated 9) have been employed to generate transgene-free products in amore precise, prompt and effective way. Moreover, the availability of potato genome sequence and efficient potato transformation systems have remarkably facilitated potato genetic engineering. Here we summarize the potato trait improvement and potential application of new breeding technologies (NBTs) to genetically improve the overall agronomic profile of potato. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iron deficiency currently affects over two billion people worldwide despite significant advances in technology and society aimed at mitigating this global health problem. Biofortification of food staples with iron (Fe) represents a sustainable approach for alleviating human Fe deficiency in developing countries, however, biofortification efforts have focused extensively on cereal staples while pulses have been largely overlooked. In this study we describe a genetic engineering (GE) approach to biofortify the pulse crop, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), with Fe using a combination of the chickpea nicotianamine synthase 2 (CaNAS2) and soybean (Glycine max) ferritin (GmFER) genes which function in Fe transport and storage, respectively. This study consists of three main components: (1) the establishment for baseline Fe concentration of existing germplam, (2) the isolation and study of expression pattern of the novel CaNAS2 gene, and (3) the generation of GE chickpea overexpressing the CaNAS2 and GmFER genes. Seed of six commercial chickpea cultivars was collected from four different field locations in Australia and assessed for seed Fe concentration. The results revealed little difference between the cultivars assessed, and that chickpea seed Fe was negatively affected where soil Fe bioavailability is low. The desi cultivar HatTrick was then selected for further study. From it, the CaNAS2 gene was cloned and its expression in different tissues examined. The gene was found to be expressed in multiple vegetative tissues under Fe-sufficient conditions, suggesting that it may play a housekeeping role in systemic translocation of Fe. Two GE chickpea events were then generated and the overexpression of the CaNAS2 and GmFER transgenes confirmed. Analysis of nicotianamine (NA) and Fe levels in the GE seeds revealed that NA was nearly doubled compared to the null control while Fe concentration was not changed. Increased NA content in chickpea seed is likely to translate into increased Fe bioavailability and may thus overcome the effect of the bioavailability inhibitors found in pulses; however, further study is required to confirm this. This is the first known example of GE Fe biofortified chickpea; information gleaned from this study can feed into future pulse biofortification work to help alleviate global Fe deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] A method was developed for the analysis of main metabolites in aromatic rice seeds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). [Method] The main metabolites in seeds of 9 different aromatic rice varieties were compared and analyzed with two methods. Method 1: the compound was extracted by the mixture of anhydrous ethanol and methylene chloride (V / V = 1:1) at 60 'C for 3 h in water bath; the extract was isolated and detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry using HP-5 capillary column with scan monitoring mode. Method 2: the main metabolites in aromatic rice seeds were detected using headspace solid phase micro-extraction and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). [Result] Fifteen types of common metabolites were found in 9 different aromatic rice varieties. Method 1 was more effective than method 2 in detecting the main metabolites in aromatic rice seeds. [Conclusion] This study provides an important reference for clarifying the metabolic pathway of main metabolites in aromatic rice and lays the foundation for further rice breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In spite of the lack of scientific justification for skepticism about crops modified with molecular techniques of genetic engineering, they have been the most scrutinized agricultural products in human history. The assumption that “genetically engineered” or “genetically modified” is a meaningful - and dangerous - classification has led to excessive and dilatory regulation. The modern molecular techniques are an extension, or refinement, of older, less precise, less predictable methods of genetic modification, but as long as today's activists and regulators remain convinced that so called “GMOs” represent a distinct and dangerous category of research and products, genetic engineering will fall short of its potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several high-throughput molecular genetic analyses rely on high-quality genomic DNA. Copurification of other molecules can negatively impact the functionality of plant DNA preparations employed in these procedures. Isolating DNA from agronomically important crops, such as sugarcane, rice, citrus, potato and tomato is a challenge due to the presence of high fiber, polysaccharides, or secondary metabolites. We present a simplified, rapid and reproducible SDS-based method that provides high-quality and -quantity of DNA from small amounts of leaf tissue, as required by the emerging biotechnology and molecular genetic applications. Results: We developed the TENS-CO method as a simplified SDS-based isolation procedure with sequential steps of purification to remove polysaccharides and polyphenols using 2-mercaptoethanol and potassium acetate, chloroform partitioning, and sodium acetate/ethanol precipitation to yield high-quantity and -quality DNA consistently from small amounts of tissue (0.15 g) for different plant species. The method is simplified and rapid in terms of requiring minimal manipulation, smaller extraction volume, reduced homogenization time (20 s) and DNA precipitation (one precipitation for 1 h). The method has been demonstrated to accelerate screening of large amounts of plant tissues from species that are rich in polysaccharides and secondary metabolites for Southern blot analysis of reporter gene overexpressing lines, pathogen detection by quantitative PCR, and genotyping of disease-resistant plants using marker-assisted selection. Conclusion: To facilitate molecular genetic studies in major agronomical crops, we have developed the TENS-CO method as a simple, rapid, reproducible and scalable protocol enabling efficient and robust isolation of high-quality and -quantity DNA from small amounts of tissue from sugarcane, rice, citrus, potato, and tomato, thereby reducing significantly the time and resources used for DNA isolation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat is a major staple food crop providing about 20% of dietary energy and proteins, and food products made of whole grain wheat are a major source of micronutrients like Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Magnesium (Mg), Vitamin B and E. Wheat provides about 40% intake of essential micronutrients by humans in the developing countries relying on wheat based diets. Varieties with genetically enhanced levels of grain micronutrient concentrations can provide a cost-effective and sustainable option to resource poor wheat consumers. To determine the effects of commonly deployed dwarfing genes on wheat grain Zn, Fe, Mn and Mg concentrations, nine bread wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) and six durum wheat ( T. turgidum ) isoline pairs differing for Rht1 (= Rht-B1b ) and one bread wheat pair for Rht2 (= Rht-D1b ) dwarfing genes were evaluated for three crop seasons at N.E. Borlaug Research Station, Cd. Obregon, Sonora, Mexico. Presence of dwarfing genes have significantly reduced grain Zn concentration by 3.9 ppm (range 1.9-10.0 ppm), and Fe by 3.2 ppm (range 1.0-14.4 ppm). On the average, about 94 ppm Mg and 6 ppm Mn reductions occurred in semidwarf varieties compared to tall varieties. The thousand kernel weight (TKW) of semidwarf isolines was 2.6 g (range 0.7-5.6 g) lower than the tall counterparts whereas the plant height decreased by 25 cm (range 16–37 cm). Reductions for all traits in semidwarfs were genotype dependent and the magnitude of height reductions did not correlate with reductions in micronutrient concentrations in wheat grain. We conclude that increased grain yield potential of semidwarf wheat varieties is associated with reduced grain micronutrient concentrations; however, the magnitude of reductions in micronutrients varied depending on genetic background and their associated pleiotropic effect on yield components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic engineering for heat stress tolerance can promote crop growth and improve yield. One wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) line Y16 (wild type) and two transgenic plants (Y16-3 and Y16-46) that express Hpa1, a functional fragment of harpin protein, were used in this study to investigate their possible abiotic stress tolerance under heat stress. Results showed that enhanced thermotolerance was observed in the Y16-3 and Y16-46 lines over the control wheat under stress conditions. However, this increased stress tolerance was significantly abolished by specific inhibitors such as fluridone or sodium tungstate (i.e., arrests abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis) and EGTA or La (i.e., arrests Ca signaling pathway) under heat exposure. By contrast, high activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase (but not peroxidase) and low levels of oxidative damage (thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) and chlorophyll) were detected in transgenic wheat lines compared with the control plant under stress exposure. However, this significant difference diminished after the addition of these specific inhibitors. Furthermore, a slight increase of HO was observed in the transgenic plant, instead of the control, without the addition of chemicals under heat stress. These results suggested that antioxidant enzymes, calcium, and ABA signaling pathways were involved in this Hpa1-mediated thermotolerance of transgenic wheat plants under stress exposure. Finally, a hypothetical model based on HO signaling was proposed to illustrate the possible mechanism of this enhanced heat stress tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An alarming increase in the human population necessitates doubling the world food production in the next few decades. Although a number of possible biotechnological measures are under consideration, central to these efforts is the development of transgenic crops to produce more food, and the traits with which plants could better adapt to adverse environmental conditions in a changing climate. The emergence of new tools for the introduction of foreign genes into plants has increased both our knowledge and the capacity to develop transgenic plants. In addition, a better understanding of genetic modifications has allowed us to study the impact that genetically modified crop plants may have on the environment. This article discusses different techniques routinely used to carry out genetic modifications in plants while highlighting challenges with them, which future research must address to increase acceptance of GM crops for meeting food security challenges effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agbiotechnology uses genetic engineering to improve the output and value of crops. Altering the expression of the plant Type I Proton-pumping Pyrophosphatase (H+- PPase) has already proven to be a useful tool to enhance crop productivity. Despite the effective use of this gene in translational research, information regarding the intracellular localization and functional plasticity of the pump remain largely enigmatic. Using computer modeling several putative phosphorylation, ubiquitination and sumoylation target sites were identified that may regulate Arabidopsis H+- -PPase (AVP1- Arabidopsis Vacuolar Proton-pump 1) subcellular trafficking and activity. These putative regulatory sites will direct future research that specifically addresses the partitioning and transport characteristics of this pump. We posit that fine-tuning H+- -PPases activity and cellular distribution will facilitate rationale strategies for further genetic improvements in crop productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of new high yielding varieties of crop plant made possible by accumulation of beneficial alleles from plant genetic resources existing worldwide but still a significant portion of these alleles were not used as these were left behind during evolution and domestication process in the form of wild relatives and land races. Hence, the vast germplasm need to be relooked for novel alleles to further enhance the genetic potential of crop varieties for various agronomic traits. Basedon gene and genome sequences available in public database, PCR strategies are devised to identify and isolate novel and superior alleles of agronomically important genes from a wide range of crop species to suitably organize for the development of improved cultivars. Allele mining can be effectively used for discovery of superior alleles are through 'mining' the gene of interest from diverse genetic resources. It can also provide insight into molecular basis of novel trait variations and identify the nucleotide sequence changes associated with superior alleles. It will help to trace the evolution of alleles, identification of new haplotypes and development of allele-specific markers for use in Marker Assisted Selection (MAS). Realizing the immense potential of Allele mining, concerted Allele mining efforts are underway in many international crop research institutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetically modified, insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton is cultivated extensively in Pakistan. Past studies, however, have raised concerns about the prevalence of Bt cotton varieties possessing weak or nonperforming insect-resistance traits conferred by the cry gene. We examine this issue using data drawn from a representative sample of cotton-growing households that were surveyed in six agroclimatic zones spanning 28 districts in Pakistan in 2013, as well as measurements of Cry protein levels in cotton tissue samples collected from the sampled households’ main fields. The resultant dataset combines information from 593 sampled households with corresponding plant tissue diagnostics from 70 days after sowing, as well as information from 589 sampled households with corresponding diagnostics from 120 days after sowing. Our analysis indicates that 11 percent of farmers believed they were cultivating Bt cotton when, in fact, the Cry toxin was not present in the tested tissue at 70 days after sowing (i.e., a Type I error). The analysis further indicates that 5 percent of farmers believed they were cultivating non-Bt cotton when, in fact, the Cry toxin was present in the tested tissue (i.e., a Type II error). In addition, 17 percent of all sampled farmers were uncertain whether or not they were cultivating Bt cotton. Overall, 33 percent of farmers either did not know or were mistaken in their beliefs about the presence of the cry gene in the cotton they cultivated. Results also indicate that toxic protein levels in the plant tissue samples occurred below threshold levels for lethality in a significant percentage of cases, although these measurements may also be affected by factors related to tissue sample collection, handling, storage, and testing procedures. Nonetheless, results strongly suggest wide variability both in farmers’ beliefs and in gene expression. Such variability has implications for policy and regulation in Pakistan’s transgenic cotton seed market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A broad definition of a crop wild relative is any taxon within the same genus as a crop species, or in the case of some crop genepools, other closely related genera. Given the large number of species cultivated for human and animal food, and medicinal, ornamental, environmental, and industrial purposes, the number of taxa related to these crops is inevitably vast, one estimate being >58,000 species globally. Limited resources for conservation management demands careful planning so that taxa in most urgent need of conservation are given priority. Various prioritization criteria have been used to target wild taxa for conservation action; however, in the case of crop wild relatives, a specific approach is needed to take account of their particular value as potential sources of traits for crop improvement. A surge in conservation planning for crop wild relatives since the turn of the century has resulted in a wide range of different crop wild relative prioritization criteria and methods being applied. This paper reviews those criteria and methods and presents a harmonized, logical, and pragmatic means of assigning priority status to crop wild relative taxa on the basis of three main criteria: (i) the socioeconomic value of crops, (ii) the relative potential value of the wild relatives of socioeconomically valuable crops for variety improvement, and (iii) the relative threat status of the wild relatives of socioeconomically valuable crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Molecular characterization lays a foundation for safety assessment and subsequent monitoring of genetically modified (GM) crops. Due to the target-specific nature, conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods cannot comprehensively detect unintended gene insertions, let alone unknown GM events. As more and more new developed GM crops including new plant breeding technology (NPBT) generated crops are in the pipeline for commercialization, alternative -omics approaches, particularly next generation sequencing, have been developed for molecular characterization of authorized or unauthorized GM (UGM) crops. This review summarizes first those methods, addresses their challenges, and discusses possible strategies for molecular characterization of engineered crops generated by NPBT, highlighting needs for a global information-sharing database and cost-effective, accurate and comprehensive molecular characterization approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although seed vigor is a complex physiological trait controlled by quantitative trait loci, technological advances in the laboratory are being translated into applications for enhancing seed vigor in crop plants. In this article, we summarize and discuss pioneering work in the genetic modification of seed vigor, especially through the over-expression of protein L-isoaspartyl methyltransferase (PIMT, EC 2.1.1.77) in seeds. The impressive success in improving rice seed vigor through the over-expression of PIMT provides a valuable reference for engineering high-vigor seeds for crop production. In recent decades, numerous genes/proteins associated with seed vigor have been identified. It is hoped that such potential candidates may be used in the development of genetically edited crops for a high and stable yield potential in crop production. This possibility is very valuable in the context of a changing climate and increasing world population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most important crop productivity traits, such as yield under normal and environmental stress conditions, are determined by a large number of genes, each with a small phenotypic effect. Genetic improvement of these traits through breeding or genetic engineering has been frustrating researchers in academia and industry. The reasons for this include the complexity of the traits, the difficulty of precise phenotyping and the lack of validated candidate genes. Different approaches to the discovery of the genetic architecture of such traits, such as Genetic Association Mapping and Genomic Selection and their engineering, are expected to yield benefits for farmers and consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioeconomy, biotechnology and genetically-modified organisms in particular have been the subject of discussion for a long time. Biotechnology is applied in a variety of economic areas which include biopharmaceuticals, biobased products and agriculture. During the last 20 years, innovative biotechnological techniques for plant genome improvement have been developed. Many factors worldwide have led to the status quo : different legislations around the world, the lack of public acceptance in the EU and high expectations for new strategies for sustainability and food security. Therefore, a clear regulatory status for new techniques is crucial for research and development, as well as for their practical implementation. This should be based on solid science which plays a critical role in developing the bioeconomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcription factors (TFs) are master regulators of abiotic stress responses in plants. This review focuses on TFs from seven major TF families, known to play functional roles in response to abiotic stresses, including drought, high salinity, high osmolarity, temperature extremes and the phytohormone ABA. Although ectopic expression of several TFs has improved abiotic stress tolerance in plants, fine-tuning of TF expression and protein levels remains a challenge to avoid crop yield loss. To further our understanding of TFs in abiotic stress responses, emerging gene regulatory networks based on TFs and their direct targets genes are presented. These revealed components shared between ABA-dependent and independent signaling as well as abiotic and biotic stress signaling. Protein structure analysis suggested that TFs hubs of large interactomes have extended regions with protein intrinsic disorder (ID), referring to their lack of fixed tertiary structures. ID is now an emerging topic in plant science. Furthermore, the importance of the ubiquitin-proteasome protein degradation systems and modification by sumoylation is also apparent from the interactomes. Therefore; TF interaction partners such as E3 ubiquitin ligases and TF regions with ID represent future targets for engineering improved abiotic stress tolerance in crops.

The evolution of resistance to pesticides by insect pests is a significant challenge for sustainable agriculture. For transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), crystalline (Cry) toxins resistance evolution may be delayed by the high-dose/refuge strategy in which a non-toxic refuge is planted to promote the survival of susceptible insects. The high-dose/refuge strategy may interact with fitness costs associated with resistance alleles to further delay resistance. However, while a diverse range of fitness costs are reported in the field, they are typically represented as a fixed reduction in survival or viability which is insensitive to ecological conditions such as competition. Furthermore, the potential dynamic consequences of restricting susceptible insects to a refuge which represents only a fraction of the available space have rarely been considered., We present a generalized discrete time model which utilizes dynamic programming methods to derive the optimal management decisions for the control of a theoretical insect pest population exposed to Bt crops. We consider three genotypes (susceptible homozygotes, resistant homozygotes and heterozygotes) and implement fitness costs of resistance to Bt toxins as either a decrease in the relative competitive ability of resistant insects or as a penalty on fecundity. Model analysis is repeated and contrasted for two types of density dependence: uniform density dependence which operates equally across the landscape and heterogeneous density dependence where the intensity of competition scales inversely with patch size and is determined separately for the refuge and Bt crop., When the planting of Bt is decided optimally, fitness costs to fecundity allow for the planting of larger areas of Bt crops than equivalent fitness costs that reduce the competitive ability of resistant insects., Heterogeneous competition only influenced model predictions when the proportional area of Bt planted in each season was decided optimally and resistance was not recessive., Synthesis and applications. The high-dose/refuge strategy alone is insufficient to preserve susceptibility to transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops in the long term when constraints upon the evolution of resistance are not insurmountable. Fitness costs may enhance the delaying effect of the refuge, but the extent to which they do so depends upon how the cost is realized biologically. Fitness costs which apply independently of other variables may be more beneficial to resistance management than costs which are only visible to selection under a limited range of ecological conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soybean is an economically important leguminous crop. Genetic improvements of soybeans have focused on enhancement of seed and oil yield, development of varieties suited to different cropping systems, and breeding resistant/tolerant varieties for various biotic and abiotic stresses. Plant breeders have used conventional breeding techniques for the improvement of these traits in soybean. The conventional breeding process can be greatly accelerated through the application of molecular and genomic approaches. Molecular markers have proved to be a new tool in soybean breeding by enhancing selection efficiency in a rapid and time-bound manner. An overview of molecular approaches for the genetic improvement of soybean seed quality parameters, considering recent applications of marker-assisted selection and 'omics' research, is provided in this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genome editing with engineered nucleases (GEEN) is a highly efficient means of generating useful traits in crops. The application of GEEN for multiple traits and crops is resulting in products that are already entering the marketplace. Genome editing represents diverse and robust techniques targeting highly specific genome locations to cause double-strand breaks and subsequent repair by homologous and non-homologous mechanisms. Genome edits range from simple random insertions or deletions to template additions to stacking of multiple transgenes at a specific locus. Consequently, it is not easy to generalize the regulatory view of genome editing for crop improvement since a case-specific consideration is necessary which, in many regulatory regimes, encompasses the process used and the genome edit achieved in addition to the phenotype derived. Key process considerations for regulators of a GEEN-derived product are the nature of the edit, specificity, the source of the editing machinery, and post-editing trait segregation. These considerations along with the nature of the derived trait and performance of the crop phenotype inform the safety and benefit of a given GEEN product. The view of regulators toward a particular genome-edited crop is driven by the degree that regulatory statutes are product-versus process-focused and will be shaped by emerging scientific and public views of genome-editing technology. In order that the public will not confuse genome-edited crops with genetically modified organisms (GMOs), scientists and regulators alike need to carefully frame and communicate GEEN techniques in terms of the specific process used and the benefits derived through development of useful crop traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) causes the reduction, but not absence, of disease, and is a major type of disease resistance for many crop species. QDR results in a continuous distribution of disease scores across a segregating population, and is typically due to many genes with small effects. It may also be a source of durable resistance. The past decade has seen significant progress in cloning genes underlying QDR. In this review, we focus on these recently cloned genes and identify new themes of QDR emerging from these studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key message: New tools for the precise modification of crops genes are now available for the engineering of new ideotypes. A future challenge in this emerging field of genome engineering is to develop efficient methods for allele mining. Abstract: Genome engineering tools are now available in plants, including major crops, to modify in a predictable manner a given gene. These new techniques have a tremendous potential for a spectacular acceleration of the plant breeding process. Here, we discuss how genetic diversity has always been the raw material for breeders and how they have always taken advantage of the best available science to use, and when possible, increase, this genetic diversity. We will present why the advent of these new techniques gives to the breeders extremely powerful tools for crop breeding, but also why this will require the breeders and researchers to characterize the genes underlying this genetic diversity more precisely. Tackling these challenges should permit the engineering of optimized alleles assortments in an unprecedented and controlled way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evolution of the next-generation clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeat/Cas9 (CRISPR/Cas9) genome editing tools, ribonucleoprotein (RNA)-guided endonuclease (RGEN) RNPs, is paving the way for developing DNA-free genetically edited crop plants. In this review, I discuss the various methods of RGEN RNPs tool delivery into plant cells and their limitations to adopt this technology to numerous crop plants. Furthermore, focus is given on the importance of developing DNA-free genome edited crop plants, including perennial crop plants. The possible regulation on the DNA-free, next-generation genome-edited crop plants is also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CRISPR/Cas9 has evolved and transformed the field of biology at an unprecedented pace. From the initial purpose of introducing a site specific mutation within a genome of choice, this technology has morphed into enabling a wide array of molecular applications, including site-specific transgene insertion and multiplexing for the simultaneous induction of multiple cleavage events. Efficiency, specificity, and flexibility are key attributes that have solidified CRISPR/Cas9 as the genome-editing tool of choice by scientists from all areas of biology. Within the field of plant biology, several CRISPR/Cas9 technologies, developed in other biological systems, have been successfully implemented to probe plant gene function and to modify specific crop traits. It is anticipated that this trend will persist and lead to the development of new applications and modifications of the CRISPR technology, adding to an ever-expanding collection of genome-editing tools. We envision that these tools will bestow plant researchers with new utilities to alter genome complexity, engineer site-specific integration events, control gene expression, generate transgene-free edited crops, and prevent or cure plant viral disease. The successful implementation of such utilities will represent a new frontier in plant biotechnology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerodynamic properties of agricultural materials are the physical properties considering the reaction of agricultural material piles or seeds against airflow. The airflow resistance of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seed piles was experimentally determined and mathematically modeled for two different moisture contents (11.4 % and 25.8% w.b.) for the superficial air velocities ranging from 0.0225 to 1.395 m3∙m-2∙s-1. Modified Shedd's equation and Hukill-Ives equation can be interchangeably used to design aeration systems for the storage and drying bins of faba bean seeds. The terminal velocity values are 11.68 and 12.87 m∙s-1 for the moisture contents of 11.4% and 25.8% (w.b.), respectively. The drag coefficient values are 1.02 and 0.88 for the moisture contents of 11.4% and 25.8% (w.b.), respectively. Moisture content increased terminal velocity but decreased drag coefficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online database and information system for mungbean germplasm addresses the data management need in this crop by producing a user-friendly menu driven system that generates data entry forms, queries and reports and maintains a comprehensive database. The basic objective of this experiment was to develop online database and information system for mungbean germplasm, alongwith their characteristics and to analyze relationships between these characteristics. The developed system provides statistical summary for each evaluation descriptor and its various descriptor states. Presently, the database contains data on 550 mungbean germplasm accessions with evaluation for 26 descriptors. It provides secure data storage that can be shared over Intranet of Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur and will be linked with the website of Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur for access by genetic resource specialists, breeders and planners to differentiate genetic materials from possible duplications. A user-friendly interface for data entry has been developed for entry of data related to different characters of germplasm. 4 main reports viz., qualitative report, quantitative report, querybased report, and details report have been designed to enable quick and accurate retrieval of data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop productivity strongly depends on several biotic and abiotic factors. Salinity is one of the most important abiotic factors, besides drought, extreme temperatures, light and metal stress. The enhanced burden of secondary salinization induced through anthropogenic activities increases pressure on glycophytic crop plants. The recent isolation and characterization of salt tolerance genes encoding signaling components from halophytes, which naturally grow in high salinity, has provided tools for the development of transgenic crop plants with improved salt tolerance and economically beneficial traits. In addition understanding of the differences between glycophytes and halophytes with respect to levels of salinity tolerance is also one of the prerequisite to achieve this goal. Based on the recent developments in mechanisms of salt tolerance in halophytes, we will explore the potential of introducing salt tolerance by choosing the available genes from both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous halophytes, including the salt overly sensitive system ( SOS )-related cation/proton antiporters of plasma ( NHX/SOS1 ) and vacuolar membranes ( NHX ), energy-related pumps, such as plasma membrane and vacuolar H + adenosine triphosphatase ( PM & V - H + ATPase ), vacuolar H + pyrophosphatases ( V - H + PPase ) and potassium transporter genes. Various halophyte genes responsible for other processes, such as crosstalk signaling, osmotic solutes production and reactive oxygen species (ROS) suppression, which also enhance salt tolerance will be described. In addition, the transgenic overexpression of halophytic genes in crops (rice, peanut, finger millet, soybean, tomato, alfalfa, jatropha, etc.) will be discussed as a successful mechanism for the induction of salt tolerance. Moreover, the advances in genetic engineering technology for the production of genetically modified crops to achieve the improved salinity tolerance under field conditions will also be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]