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1. A 3x2x2 factorial experiment was conducted with boiler breeder females to determine the effects of body weight gain (three levels) and conventional or lower crude protein concentrations in the rations during rearing, and restricted or ad libitum feeding after the peak rate of lay on egg production, fertility, hatchability, mortality and food consumption. 2. Compared with ad libitum feeding, conventional food restriction resulted in a decrease in average daily food consumption of 0.6 during rearing, 0.2 during early lay and an increase of 0.4 after the peak rate of egg production. Mortality was decreased by more than half. 3. Restricted birds had higher total and settable egg production, fewer defective or damaged eggshells and higher fertility and hatchability than those fed ad libitum. The modified (more generous) rearing programme resulted in lower rates of egg production and higher rates of mortality compared with the conventional food restriction programme. 4. Low-protein rearing rations were associated with higher rates of food intake, higher mortalities and lower rates of egg production than the conventional protein rations. There were no differences in the fertility or hatchability of eggs between birds fed on the two concentrations of dietary crude protein. 5. Ad libitum feeding post-peak was associated with higher rates of mortality to 60 weeks of age. Post-peak feeding had little effect on the rate of lay or egg weight in conventionally restricted birds fed high protein rations or in birds fed ad libitum. Restricted feeding post-peak decreased the rate of lay and egg weight in birds on the modified restriction programme and in conventionally restricted birds fed on the low protein rations. There was no effect of post-peak feeding on fertility or hatchability of eggs. 6. The total numbers of saleable chicks per kg food consumed were 1.83, 1.72 and 0.52 for conventional, modified and ad libitum feeding during rearing; 1.56 and 1.15 for restricted and ad libitum feeding post-peak: there were no differences associated with protein concentrations of rations fed during rearing.

The aim of this study was to compare the profile of circulating concentrations of LH, progesterone and oestradiol in a multiple ovulating male line with that of a single ovulating line of traditional turkeys. Plasma samples from seven traditional and 12 male-line turkeys were obtained every 3 h for 36 h. Male-line and traditional turkeys had single peaks of LH and progesterone that were of similar duration in both lines. The mean height of the plasma peaks of LH and progesterone were similar in the two lines and there was no detectable peak plasma oestrogen concentration. Mean plasma concentrations of LH and oestrogen were higher in single compared with multiple ovulating turkeys, whereas there were no differences in mean plasma progesterone concentrations. The results indicate that the multiple ovulation state in genetically selected high-growth lines of turkey may be the result of a correlated response in the steroidogenic capacity of ovarian tissue associated with low plasma concentrations of oestrogen rather than of a disturbance in the hormone profile of the ovulatory cycle.

The effect of light exposure on the steroidal glycoalkaloid content of Solanum phureja tubers has been investigated and compared with that in domesticated potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers. The results indicated that the increase in the concentration of solanidine-based glycoalkaloids, alpha-solanine and alpha-chaconine was broadly similar in both species. However, in the S. phureja tubers, light exposure also induced the synthesis of tomatidenol-based glycoalkaloids. These have been identified as alpha- and beta-solamarine. These glycoalkaloids were not detected in tubers continually stored in darkness.

Epicuticular waxes from the aphid-resistant red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) cultivar Autumn Bliss and the aphid-susceptible cultivar Malling Jewel were collected from the newly emerging crown leaves, and also from the group of four more mature leaves immediately below the crown. Resistance and susceptibility status of the leaves to infestation by the large raspberry aphid, Amphorophora idaei, were determined by bioassay with the insect just prior to collection of the wax. Analysis showed the waxes to consist of a complex mixture of free fatty acids; free primary alcohols and their acetates; secondary alcohols; ketones; terpenoids including squalene, phytosterols, tocopherol and amyrins; alkanes and long chain alkyl and terpenyl esters. Compositional differences which may relate to A. idaei-resistance status were noticeably higher levels of sterols, particularly cycloartenol, together with the presence of branched alkanes, and an absence of C29 ketones and the symmetrical C29 secondary alcohol in wax from the resistant cultivar Bliss. There were also differences between the cultivars in the distribution of individual amyrins and tocopherols and in the chain length distribution for homologues of fatty acids, primary alcohols and alkanes, and these may also be related to resistance to A. idaei. Emerging leaves had lower levels of primary alcohols and terpenes, but higher levels of long-chain alkyl esters, and in general, more compounds of shorter chain-length than the more mature leaves. During bioassay A. idaei displayed a preference to settle on the more mature leaves. This may be due to greater wax coverage and higher levels of the compounds of shorter chain length found in the newly emerged younger leaves at the crown of the plant.

Epicuticular waxes from two cultivars of red raspberry ( Rubus idaeus ) were collected from the newly emerging crown leaves, and also from the group of four more mature leaves immediately below the crown. One cultivar, Autumn Bliss, was identified as aphid-resistant, and the other, Malling Jewel, as aphid-susceptible following bioassay with the large raspberry aphid, Amphorophora idaei , just prior to collection of the wax. Biological activity was primarily associated with the more mature leaves. Epicuticular wax esters consisted predominantly of long-chain aliphatic compounds in which even-carbon-number acids were esterified to even-carbon-number alcohols. Lesser amounts of odd-carbon-number esters were also present. The acid : alcohol combinations of the major esters were C 38 : 14 : 24, 16 : 22, 20 : 18; C 40 : 14 : 26, 16 : 24, 18 : 22, 20 : 20; C 42 : 16 : 26, 20 : 22; 22 : 20, C 44 : 20 : 24, 22 : 22, 24 : 20; C 46 : 20 : 26, 22 : 24, 24 : 22; C 48 : 20 : 28, 22 : 26, 24 : 24, 26 : 22; C 50 : 20 : 30, 22 : 28, 24 : 26, 26 : 24, 28 : 22 and C 52 : 22 : 30, 24 : 28, 26 : 26. Terpenyl esters were also present and these consisted of α - and β -amyrin and cycloartenol esterified to C 16 , C 18 and C 20 acids. Compositional differences between the more mature leaves which may relate to resistance to A. idaei were higher levels of cycloartenyl esters and α -amyryl esters in wax from the resistant cultivar Bliss. There were also differences between the cultivars in the distribution of individual alkyl esters and their component acids and alcohols. Esters with longer acid : shorter alcohol combinations were more abundant in Jewel than Bliss. There were compositional differences between leaves at the different developmental stages. Alkyl esters were more abundant and cycloartenyl esters were not detected in wax from the immature leaves. Small amounts of an unusual class of triacylglycerol were found only on leaves of the aphid-susceptible cultivar, Jewel, which had been subject to bioassay with raspberry aphid. These compounds, which have a C 6 acid at C-2 of the glycerol backbone, were derived from the aphid, and are the major component in the insect’s cornicle secretions. The triacylglycerols probably arise from the presence on the leaf surface of shed aphid skins, or by incorporation of cornicle fluid into the leaf wax. The abundance of aphid triacylglycerols on the leaf surface may provide a measure of aphid-susceptibility.

Polymer entrainment combined with solvent elution or thermal desorption, steam distillation and solvent surface extractions has been applied to leaves from midge-resistant and -susceptible blackcurrant cultivars. Irrespective of the methods used, the predominant compounds detected were terpene hydrocarbons, but only minor quantitative differences were found in the relative concentrations of the individual mono- and sesqui-terpenes identified. Both steam distillation and thermal desorption resulted in the formation of a number of artefacts, whilst the use of polymer entrainment revealed the presence of a number of compounds, including a homoterpene not detected by either steam distillation or leaf surface solvent extraction. The relative merits of the various methods used are discussed in relation to their potential value for the identification and quantification of leaf surface volatiles. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The floral bouquet of faba bean flowers was shown to be a complex mixture of some 27 identifiable compounds. In addition to the ubiquitous mono and sesquiterpenes, the porous-polymer entrained volatiles included a diverse range of phenylpropenoids which together accounted for over 7% of the total. Cinnamyl alcohol was also found to be the most abundant free alcohol in the epicuticular wax of faba bean flowers. Two new classes of epicuticular wax esters consisting of saturated C16, C18, C20, C22 and C24 fatty acids esterified with the phenylpropenoid, cinnamyl alcohol and with the diterpene, phytol have been identified.

Several synthetic diacylglycerols and natural mixtures derived from soybean, egg yolk, and bovine liver phosphatidylcholines were examined in the form of nicotinate derivatives by liquid chromatography with particle-beam electron-impact mass spectrometry. High-performance liquid chromatography was carried out in the reversed-phase mode with a base-deactivated octyl-/octadecylsilyl stationary phase. The nature (size and degree of unsaturation) of the acyl residues was readily determined from the mass spectra. Uniquely, the positions of the double bonds could be deduced, although this became increasingly difficult as the degree of unsaturation of diacylglycerols containing mixed acyl residues increased. Reverse 1,2-diacylglycerol isomers could be distinguished by their mass spectra.

1. The mean incidence of deaths from ascites in the UK in 1993 was 1.4% (0.7% in 1991 and 0.9% in 1992) and 0.8% from sudden death syndrome (SDS). In total, the economic loss to the UK Broiler Industry in 1993 as a result of these 2 conditions was 24 Pounds M. 2. Clear geographical differences emerged in the occurrence of ascites, with, not only the lowest incidences being observed in Northern Ireland, but also the peak of the mortality from ascites occurring much later in the rearing cycle than in other regions on the mainland. 3. In all regions the incidence of SDS was lower than that of ascites but the reason for this disparity remains to be established. 4. Some of the variables associated with the road transportation of day-old chicks from the hatchery to the farm appeared to influence the incidence of ascites. These included distance or time travelled, stocking density, internal lorry temperature and the length of time the lorry was heated before transport as well as the time the shed was heated before chick arrival. Temperature was also an important factor during growth (brooding and finishing). 5. Negative pressure-powered ventilation was preferred in most organisations but more ascites was seen with positive pressure ventilation. However, the lowest incidence of ascites occurred with natural ventilation. There was more ascites relative to shed orientation when the wind direction was from the west compared to the east. 6. This survey identifies the extent of the problem of broiler ascites in the UK and also highlights the importance of good management control of day-old chicks, not only following placement, but even before their arrival on the farm.

The composition of intact leaf epicuticular wax esters of two individual genotypes each of kale and swede grown indoors (I) and outdoors (O) at SCRI, Scotland, and outdoors at Wadenswil in Switzerland (S), were determined by GC-mass spectrometry. For all genotypes (I, O, S) esters were found to consist of unbranched ( n- ) and branched anteiso - ( a- ) and iso - ( i- ) components in the a : a , a : i , i : a , a : n , n : a , n : n and i / n : n / i acid-alcohol combinations. Esterification was non-random, n : n and doubly branched br -/ br - combinations were favoured over mixed n -/ br - combinations. Combinations with extremes of acid and alcohol chain-length were generally uncommon, although longer-chain alcohols were more predominant in some swede esters. There were considerable compositional differences between indoor-grown plants (I) and those grown outdoors (O and S). In general, i : n / n : i , i : a and a : i esters were relatively more abundant in (O and S) and n : n and n : a esters were more abundant in (I), whereas a : n and a : a esters were of similar abundance in all (I, O and S). Generally, (I)-grown plants were found to have proportionally more esters of longer chain-length and (O, S)-grown plants proportionally more esters of shorter chain-length. For kale a : a , n : n , a : n and n : a esters, this was particularly related to variation in alcohol chain-length. There were also major compositional differences between kale and swede esters, long-acid-short-alcohol combinations were more prominent in the former, while short-acid-long-alcohol combinations dominated in the latter. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

The fatty acid composition of seeds ofGinkgo biloba has been examined by a combination of capillary gas chromatography, silver ion high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Some of the fatty acids identified are unusual in plants and were rather different from those reported earlier. These include ananteiso-methyl branched fatty acid, 14-methylhexadecanoic acid, 5,9-octadecadienoic acid, and 5,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed that all of the double bonds were of thecis-configuration.

The composition of leaf epicuticular waxes of two genotypes each of kale and swede were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Plants were grown indoors (I) and outdoors (O) at SCRI, Scotland, and outdoors at Wadenswil in Switzerland (S). Epicuticular waxes from outdoor-grown plants (O and S) were found to have higher proportions of n-alkanes, octacosanoic acid, primary alcohols and long-chain esters but lower proportions of aldehydes, ketones, ketols and secondary alcohols than waxes from (I)-grown plants. Outdoor-grown plants were also found to have proportionally more shorter chain length compounds and indoor-grown plants proportionally more compounds of longer chain length. Variations in wax composition between genotypes of a species and between species were also observed. Differences in leaf surface wax ultrastructure, between species, and between different growth conditions were detected using scanning electron microscopy. The possible role of leaf wax chemicals in the antixenotic resistance to the turnip root fly, Delia floralis, of certain genotypes was also considered.

A method for the separation and identification of complex mixtures of more than 50 different intact esters in epicuticular wax of swede, Brassica napus var. rapifera cv. Doon Major, using combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been developed. The esters were separated at temperatures of up to 350°C by automatic pressure programming (for capillary GC) or by manually increasing helium carrier gas pressure (for GC-MS) in order to maintain flow at high temperatures. Esters in the range C41-C50 were detected, with regular repeating acid/alcohol combinations. Individual acid and alcohol moieties were identified from [RCO2H2]+ ions in the mass spectra of intact esters and, following trans-esterification and silylation, from the mass spectral and chromatographic characteristics of the methyl esters of the acid components (C14-C23) and trimethylsilyl derivatives of the alcohol components (C23-C31). The major compounds were doubly branched C44 and C46 esters, composed of anteiso-C17/anteiso-C27 (32.7%), anteiso-C17/anteiso-C29 (11.9%) and anteiso-C19/anteiso-C27 (13.1%) acid/alcohol combinations, respectively, singly branched C43 and C45 esters, composed of n-C16/anteiso-C27 (8.5%), anteiso-C17/n-C26 (3.9%), n-C18/anteiso-C27 (6.8%), anteiso-C17/n-C28 (2.3%) and anteiso-C19/n-C26 (1.6%), were minor components.

Volatiles at various stages of inflorescence development, bud formation, flowering, fruit formation and ripening of a red raspberry, were entrained on the porous polymer Tenax TA and analysed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Major classes of compound identified included aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and esters, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. As the inflorescences matured, levels of green leaf volatiles such as trans-β-ocimene and cis-3-hexenyl acetate declined and the monoterpenes, α-pinene, camphene, β-myrcene and limonene increased. During fruit ripening several additional compounds appeared including α- and β-ionone, α- and β-phellandrene and hexanoic acid ethylester. Ethyl acetate at 12–18% was the major detectable volatile product of the ripe fruit.

Using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry we have observed six peaks in the single ion chromatograph at m/z 674 of the alkaline extract of barley straw cell walls. The breakdown pattern of these ions suggests that they could all be isomers of 5,5′-bis-dehydroferulic acid. Since only the 5,5′ linkage is reported to be present in plants this tentatively suggests that these compounds exhibit stable orientational isomerism about this bond. Plausible breakdown mechanisms are presented which allow for the complete assignment of structure to all the isomers. These mechanisms suggest that the two pairs of breakdown ions at m/z 556 and 467, and 265 and 193 are representative of trans and cis double bonds, respectively.

1. 1. From 2 weeks of age, female broiler breeders were fed on one of three treatments: a commercial restricted ration (R), twice that amount (2R), or ad lib . (AL). With R and 2R, birds were fed daily at 9 a.m. and ate all their food in 2. 2. Blood samples were taken every fourth week from 5 to 21 weeks. Two putative indices of stress, basophil frequency and the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio, were highest with R and lowest with AL, consistently so with the former index and in all but the last week with the latter. Another stress index, plasma corticosterone concentration, was not affected by feeding treatment. 3. 3. Tonic immobility duration, an index of fear, was lower with R and 2R than AL at 7 and 12 weeks, but not 21 weeks. Headflick frequency, an index of arousal, was lower with R than 2R and AL, during 3 min silence and 3 min noise, at 11, 15 and 21 weeks. 4. 4. At 21 weeks, intramuscular injection of nalmefene, an antagonist of central opioid receptors, caused increases in headflick frequency, but there was no significant interaction with feeding treatment in this response. 5. 5. Feeding treatment had no significant effect on levels of β-endorphin- or leu-enkephalin-like immunoreactivity in brains of birds killed at 21 weeks, but dynorphin concentration was higher with 2R. Opioid receptor density, which could have been affected, was not measured. 6. 6. It is concluded that the commercial feeding programme caused physiological evidence of stress, and apparent reductions in fearfulness and arousal. Results of the tests at 21 weeks did not rule out the possibility that the reduced arousal was associated with altered opioid status.

Thermal desorption coupled to capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been used to identify volatile chemicals released from the flowers of five varieties of oilseed rape. An entrainment apparatus for volatile headspace analysis is described. The major classes of compound found were organic sulphides, C4 substituted compounds, aldehydes and terpenes. The possible role of these compounds in the human allergic-type response associated with oilseed rape is discussed.

Flower volatiles from four raspberry cultivars and wild hawthorn were entrained on the porous polymers Haysep Q and Tenax TA. These were analysed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major classes of compound identified included aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and esters, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and a number of unusual nitrogen compounds. The volatile profiles of the flowers of the four raspberry cultivars exhibited only minor differences. Volatiles from the flowers of hawthorn, although similar in many respects, contained proportionately lower levels of terpenoids, but elevated levels of benzaldehyde, 3-pyridine carboxaldehyde, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde and 4-methoxybenzoic acid methyl ester.

Summary The terpenoid fractions of bud extracts from blackcurrant genotypes showing resistance or susceptibility to gall mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis) infestation were examined and compared using gas chromatography. By the use of discriminant analysis, and the application of the derived discriminator to the data, resistance status was correctly predicted in 88% of the genotypes sampled. The use of metabolic profiling provides a useful alternative to lengthy field assessments.

A rapid capillary gas chromatographic method has been developed for screening coriander fruits for petroselinic acid content. The method also permits determination of the concentrations of the other major long-chain fatty acids present in coriander oil and allows an estimate of the total oil content of the sample to be determined. The method is applicable at the single fruit level and the results of analysing the constituent husk and embryo fractions have shown significant differences between their fatty acid compositions.

The fine structure of blood cells, with particular reference to basophils, was studied in broiler chickens before and after they had been subjected to heat stress. Granule counts in basophils after heat treatment showed a significant reduction in their total numbers compared with pre-heat treatment. This depletion of granules corresponded with evidence of degranulation seen at the ultrastructural level. Of the three types of basophilic granules described, only the type I electron-dense, homogeneous variety of granule was significantly reduced in number. After heat stress, there was a significant increase in heterophil lobulation. In several birds there was also evidence of cytoplasmic fragmentation in the form of portions of cells containing granules but no nuclei, lying free in the circulation. Damaged mitochondria, not seen before heat treatment, were frequently observed in the cells. Monocytes also showed significant increases in cytoplasmic lipid droplets after heat stress compared with pre-heat treatment, suggesting the onset of possibly early fatty degeneration. However, there was no evidence of increased pseudopodia or pinocytotic activity in these cells. With heat stress, there was a significant reduction in the numbers of electron-dense granules in the small lymphocytes. Despite there being a smaller proportion of circulating eosinophils after heat stress, which was considered to be the result of an immediate stress response, no significant differences were evident between pre- and post-heat treatment in the cells. The red cells and thrombocytes from post-heat-stressed broilers were significantly longer and thinner compared with pre-heat treatment due possibly to dehydration. The dimensional and ultrastructural changes identified in the cells after heat stress question their effective functional ability in raising an immune response under such circumstances.

Substituted cinnamic acids were dimerized, under fluorescent or UV light, as a glassy coating on a vial then subsequently analysed by GC/MS. Mass Spectrometric analysis of the dimers formed by each acid allowed the assignment of the dimer as a truxillic or truxinic structure since these structures had distinctive fragmentation patterns; the breakdown of the truxillic acids involves a McLafferty rearrangment before fragmentation occurs, whereas the truxinic acids, which have both carboxy groups on one side and both aromatic groups on the other, fragment asymmetrically to give characteristic stilbene and dicarboxylate fragments. It is apparent from the results of the dimerization of the lcinnamic acids that, under the conditions used here, if the monomeric acid had the capacity for hydrogen bonding using the ring substituent as well as the carboxy group, the dimerization products would be overshelmingly truxillic in structure. However, if only the carboxy group could hydrogen bond, the products would be almost exclusively traxinic in structure.

Summary In an approach to understand the mechanism(s) of resistance in raspberry to infestation by the aphid Amphorophora idaei, progeny plants segregating for the A. idaei resistance gene, A10, were bioassayed and dichloromethane extracts from the leaf surface were examined by capillary column gas chromatography (GC). No single GC peak was detected that was present in only the resistant progeny plants. Nevertheless, thirteen compounds present in all samples were quantified and identified by mass spectrometry. They were of four major classes; straight chain hydrocarbons, acetic acid esters of long chain alcohols, tocopherols and triterpenoid compounds, including α and β amyrin. Several of these compounds were not recorded previously in raspberry leaves. Linear discriminant analysis, applied to the standardised chromatographic data in an attempt to relate chemical composition to resistance, successfully partitioned 24 of the 26 plants into resistant and susceptible types as determined by bioassay. These data provide further evidence that resistance in raspberry to A. idaei is related to the chemical composition of the leaf surface.

The phenylpropenoic acids, cinnamic, p -coumaric, ferulic, sinapic and caffeic, were photodimerized either singly or in pairs and were subjected to gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analyses of their trimethylsilyl derivatives. Sinapic acid and five combinations of pairs gave only a single peak when analysed on two gas chromatographic columns, while all the rest gave two peaks. Mass spectrometdc analysis showed that, for most combinations, a dimer in the head-to-tail configuration was the major product but significant amounts of some dimers in the head-to-head configuration were produced. For most dimers, the molecular ion was evident in the spectrum while the configuration of the cyclobutane ring was established by the fragments formed from symmetrical and asymmetrical splitting.

1. White blood cells and thrombocyte values were examined in normal domestic fowls of layer and broiler strains fed restricted or ad libitum diets. 2. Basophils were the only white blood cells to increase significantly in number after the period of food restriction. It is suggested that the increase may have been associated with stress. 3. There were more basophils in broilers than layers, in males than females and in younger than older birds. 4. In contrast, a decrease in the total number of white blood cells was seen in birds maintained on a restricted diet compared with those fed ad libitum. 5. Stress may also have been responsible for an increased thrombocyte count in the restricted birds as well as a slightly lowered eosinophil count. 6. Heterophil/lymphocyte ratios were not significantly altered by the restriction of food.

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of bilateral endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy (ETS) on the quality of life of patients with hyperhidrosis of the upper limbs.This is a prospective, multicentre cohort study. Patients were studied before surgery and early (within 2 months) and late (4 months or more) after surgery. The primary outcome was the total score of the illness intrusiveness rating scale (IIRS), which on a sevenpoint Likert scale assesses the impact of their disease on each of 13 domains of quality of life. At each visit participants completed the IIRS, 10 additional questions to assess severity of disease, a global severity item, questions about employment, companionship and smoking, and a single item question reflecting the results of surgery.From 1994 to 2003, 22 patients underwent surgery. Early postoperative data were available in 12, and late postoperative data in 19 patients. Preoperative IIRS score was high 57 +/- 14. After surgery a statistically significant improvement was noted for the IIRS score, the severity questions, and the global severity score at both early and late postoperative time points. Preoperatively, 47% of patients were in a stable relationship, 30% were currently smoking, and 73% were employed; postoperatively, the responses were 58%, 16%, and 90%, respectively (P = NS). One patient (5%) developed a postoperative pneumothorax and one (5%) compensatory hyperhidrosis. There were no other local complications and none developed Horner's syndrome.Using a reliable and valid quality of life instrument we have shown that surgery is effective for the treatment of hyperhidrosis. Given the possibility of complications, we believe that surgery should be reserved for patients with the most severe form of this condition. The severity can be defined by the use of the IIRS and the 10 severity questions, which we have designed.

1. Two randomised block factorial experiments were conducted to investigate the relationships between the effects of dietary crude protein and specific amino acid concentrations on the relative growth of the body and feathers of young turkeys. 2. Decreasing dietary crude protein concentration from 300 to 180 g/kg in experiment 1 reduced the body and breast muscle weights of a large male line of turkeys proportionally by 0.44 and 0.52 compared with 0.19 and 0.24 in a small traditional line. 3. Decreasing dietary crude protein concentration was associated with a maximum reduction in feather weight of 0.18 and 0.24 respectively in male line and traditional turkeys. The length of the feathers in the cranial region of the breast decreased from 26 to 19mm in the traditional line compared with an increase from 14 to 25 mm in male line turkeys. 4. Decreasing dietary crude protein concentration was associated with an increase in the fat content of the feather-free carcase. Male line turkeys had a higher carcase fat and lower feather dry matter content than the traditional turkeys. 5. It was concluded that dietary crude protein was preferentially partitioned to feather rather than muscle growth in the male line in contrast to a traditional line of turkeys in which the growth of feathers and muscle were affected equally. 6. In experiment 2, the amino acids arginine, valine, methionine and tyrosine were added separately to a common basal ration (180g CP/kg) to raise their concentration to that of the control ration (260 g CP/kg). Each ration was fed ad libitum to male line turkeys from 2 to 6 weeks of age. 7. Amino acid supplementation increased body and breast muscle weights. 8. Compared with the basal ration, tyrosine was associated with a reduction in feather weight whereas valine had no effect. Supplementation with arginine and methionine resulted in increased feather weights that were similar to that of the controls. 9. It was concluded that arginine and methionine were used preferentially and are essential for feather growth. Excess amino acids that are not required for feather growth such as tyrosine and valine were used for increased body growth and resulted in relatively poor feather cover. 10. The results suggest that feather growth was maintained as much as possible at the expense of body growth when the amino acid concentration of the ration was less than that required to maximise body and muscle weight gain in large male line turkeys.

The aim of this study was to compare the profile of circulating concentrations of LH, progesterone and oestradiol in a multiple ovulating male line with that of a single ovulating line of traditional turkeys. Plasma samples from seven traditional and 12 male-line turkeys were obtained every 3 h for 36 h. Male-line and traditional turkeys had single peaks of LH and progesterone that were of similar duration in both lines. The mean height of the plasma peaks of LH and progesterone were similar in the two lines and there was no detectable peak plasma oestrogen concentration. Mean plasma concentrations of LH and oestrogen were higher in single compared with multiple ovulating turkeys, whereas there were no differences in mean plasma progesterone concentrations. The results indicate that the multiple ovulation state in genetically selected high-growth lines of turkey may be the result of a correlated response in the steroidogenic capacity of ovarian tissue associated with low plasma concentrations of oestrogen rather than of a disturbance in the hormone profile of the ovulatory cycle.

Epicuticular waxes have been characterised from the flowers of raspberry and hawthorn, on both of which adult raspberry beetles ( Byturus tomentosus ) can feed. The flower wax from both species had similar alkane profiles and also contained long-chain alcohols, aldehydes and fatty acids. The range of the carbon numbers detected for these classes of compounds was broadly similar in both but the relative amounts of each differed between species. Raspberry flower wax also contained fatty acid methyl esters, a group of compounds that has rarely been detected in plant epicuticular waxes, however, these were not observed in hawthorn flower wax. Long-chain alcohol-fatty acid esters with carbon numbers ranging from C36 to C48 were also detected in both plant species. However, an examination of their constituent acids indicated that in hawthorn the esters based on the C16 fatty acid predominated, whilst in raspberry flower wax, esters based on the C20 fatty acid were most abundant. Both species also contained pentacyclic triterpenoids, which accounted for, on average, over 16 and 48% of the total wax extracted from raspberry and hawthorn flowers respectively. In the former, ursolic and oleanolic acids accounted for over 90% of the pentacyclic triterpenes, whilst hawthorn flower wax, in addition to containing these acids, also contained high relative concentrations of both free and esterified α- and β-amyrins.

Summary Volatile organic compounds emitted by growing intact oilseed rape plants have been detected using an entrainment apparatus enabling volatile headspace analysis by thermal desorption coupled to capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In total, 22 volatile compounds were identified as being emitted during the flowering period. The main constituents were α-farnesene (a sesquiterpene); β-myrcene (a monoterpene); linalool (a monoterpene alcohol) and the ‘green leaf’ volatile (E)-3-hexen-1-ol acetate. These compounds constituted between 50 and 87% (mean 68%) of the total volatiles emitted in all of the entrainments carried out with flowering oilseed rape plants. The remaining constituents consisted of a range of compounds including other terpenoids, the characteristic ‘green leaf’ volatile (E)-3-hexen-1-ol, short chain alcohols and ketones, organic sulphides and nitrogen-containing compounds. These were generally present as minor constituents but some plant entrainments revealed that higher relative amounts could be emitted. This was particularly apparent for dimethyl disulphide, 3-methyl-2-pentanone, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, sabinene, isomyrcenol and (E)-3-hexen-1-ol. The possible role of the 22 compounds in respiratory mucosa and conjunctiva irritation associated with airborne releases from oilseed rape is discussed.

1. Whole blood and plasma viscosity values in normal and ascitic broiler chickens were measured. 2. The mean blood viscosity value in ascitic broilers was greater than that of the controls. There was a small but significant difference in the opposite direction between plasma viscosity values of the respective groups of birds. 3. Although the haematocrit and arterial pressure index values in the ascitic birds were raised, there was a fall in the concentration of total plasma protein. 4. The data suggest that the raised viscosity in the ascitic birds was caused by a polycythemia and not by any influence of plasma protein. 5. The cumulative effect of these factors, such as raised blood viscosity values and larger deformed red cells flowing through constricted lung arterioles, may contribute to the pulmonary hypertension and ascites seen in some young commercial broilers.

1. Two routine staining methods for domestic fowl blood cells have been modified with superior results. 2. Type of anticoagulant had a major effect on staining quality: EDTA gave excellent results whereas lithium heparin was unsatisfactory. 3. Unfixed blood smears were preferred to smears fixed in methanol before staining with May Grunwald and Giemsa's stain. Intact heterophil and basophil granules were clearly demonstrated. 4. Staining for 60 min in Natt and Herrick's haemocytometer diluent improved the differentiation between small lymphocytes and throm‐bocytes.

1. A haematological study of the red blood cell characteristics in domestic fowls fed restricted and ad libitum diets was examined. The characteristics included Hb (haemoglobin), PCV (Packed Cell Volume), Rbc (Red blood cell count), MCH (Mean Cell Haemoglobin), MCV (Mean Cell Volume), MCHC (Mean Cell Haemoglobin Concentration) and reticulocytes. 2. The investigation showed that Hb, PCV, MCH and MCV were all reduced when broilers were fed a restricted diet. The number of Rbc's in these birds also increased significantly compared with control ad libitum-fed broilers. MCHC and reticulocyte numbers did not alter significantly. 3. It is proposed that some of the red cell characteristics may be restored to within "normal" ranges by food restriction. However, the results did show that there was a tendency to induce a microcytic normochromic anaemia in these restricted-fed birds.

Summary Broiler chicks were subjected to experimentally‐induced hypoxia and the haematology, together with the histopathology and ultrastructure of heart, liver, lung and kidney and the ultracytochemistry of heart tissues were examined. The haemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume and red blood cell counts were significantly increased compared with controls. The results resembled the haematology of similar aged broilers with an ascitic syndrome and also 1‐day‐old chicks after induced hypoxia. The morphological changes were also similar in all organs examined and compared with those described in ascitic syndromes. Lactate dehydrogenase was increased in the hearts of hypoxic and ascitic birds indicating reduced oxygen utilisation. It was suggested that hypoxia may be an important factor in the aetiology ascitic syndromes of flocks kept at low altitude.

SUMMARY B horizons from a set of 23 Scottish soils were examined by Py/MS multivariate analysis. These soils comprised phaeozems, cambisols, podzols and gleysols. The principal components analysis of 52 mass ion intensities partitioned the set of soils successfully according to morphological classes Bw, Bg and Bs, and established characteristic differences of organic composition between them. Reconstructed factor spectra for the factors effecting this partition showed distinct homologous groups of products to be responsible. These were principally pyrroles, alkenes and aromatic hydrocarbons of low molecular mass. Possible organic origins of these are discussed and related to the organic patterns found in the A horizons. The Bh (humus B) horizons of podzols gave pyrolysates richer in polysaccharide and lignin products than those of other B horizons, suggesting a less decomposed organic matter.

Summary A soil of the Countesswells series was repeatedly methylated by the Hakomori procedure and a chloroform-soluble product isolated after each methylation. Ninety-two per cent of the material engendered by seven methylations was released during the first four methylations. This had a methoxyl content of about 20% and contained 2% N. Later fractions had lower methoxyl and N contents. Residual carbohydrate in the soil had reducing sugar content on hydrolysis, equivalent to about 3% of the original value. The extracted material had the infrared spectrum of a methylated soil polysaccharide and, on hydrolysis by 2 m trifluoracetic acid, released methylated sugar derivatives of which 68 were characterised by GC-MS. Derivatives corresponding to (1→4) linked sugars predominated for both hexose and pentose sugars but there was also a large proportion of (1→3) linkages, (1→3) linkages predominated for the deoxyhexose sugars. There were more sugars with only one or two methylated hydroxyl groups than could be accounted for as branching points because of the relatively small numbers of end groups. Prior reduction of the soil with sodium borohydride had no measurable effect on the nature or yield of the methylated product. This indicates that amino acid sugar linkages susceptible to β-elimination reactions can have only a very small influence on the reaction. The isolated sugar derivatives accounted for 70% of the total soil sugars. The methylated material before hydrolysis had a low nominal molecular weight on diafiltration, with 68% < 10000. Some of the sugars unaccounted for were probably lost during the dialysis stage necessary to remove dimethyl sulphoxide.

Summary The use of a portable field probe for sampling soil gas gives the degree of replication necessary to allow for the local variability of soil gas composition over short distances, and mass spectrometry provides a quick and efficient method of analysis for gases at concentrations above 0.1% by volume. These methods can conveniently be combined and their use is illustrated by the determination of N2, O2, Ar, CO2 and CH4 in two soils having impeded gaseous exchange with the atmosphere.

SUMMARY This series of papers examines some significant differences in the constitution of organic matter found amongst major soil groups and their genetic and morphological horizons, as determined by the dynamic pyrolysis-mass spectrometry of whole soil samples. Multivariate methods of data analysis identify groups of co-variant mass ions which successfully partition samples in terms of the above soil categories, and correlate with other major properties such as humification and hydromorphism. This first study covers the A horizons from a group of 22 Scottish soils chosen from the major temperate soil groups including brown forest soils, podzols, and noncalcareous, peaty and humic gleys (phaeozems, cambisols, podzols and gleysols). The principal components analysis of 52 mass ion intensities was found to partition the soils successfully in terms of two main factors which represented 62% of the total statistical variance. The first factor was found to correspond closely to the extent of hydromorphism, being high for highly gleyed A horizons, and depended chiefly on the presence of aromatic hydrocarbon ions. The second factor corresponded to the extent of mull humus formation, being high for brown forest soils (phaeozems, cambisols) and low for podzols, and depended chiefly on the abundance of polypeptide products relative to polysaccharide products. This second factor was evidently a more comprehensive expression of a humification factor found in previous studies. The relationships of these factors with C and N content and with base status properties were examined.

Summary Analysis of variance has been carried out between soil samples separated by distances of 0.5 m, 10 m and 0.5–8 km. The samples were taken from the A2 horizon of the Countesswells series iron podzol, thus maintaining the same pedological feature, profile class and parent material. The organic matter has been examined by the pyrolysis characteristics, total carbon and nitrogen, and the cations by exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+ and H+, whilst pH and total phosphorus have also been determined. The analysis of variance with respect to distance between the samples shows that all the properties examined exhibit considerable variation over short distances, many showing the major proportion of their total variance at a distance of 0.5 m. This markedly limits the interpretation of data from single samples. Those properties reflecting base status and humus type show, in addition, a variation of similar size over distances of the order of a kilometre.

Summary The calculation of a discriminator between mull and mor humus types from the mass spectra of soil pyrolysis products, described earlier by Bracewell and Robertson (1973), used IIO normalized peak heights; these can be reduced to thirteen and the calculation simplified. Assumption of class for some soils, which was necessary in the previous method of obtaining the pattern classifier, has been obviated by the use of principal components analysis.

Differential thermal analysis in an oxygen atmosphere and pyrolysis in vacuo combined with mass spectrometry have been used to follow the transformations occurring during the humification of vegetation. Two processes are indicated, one, apparently enhanced by liming consisting of oxidative degradation and the other corresponding to degradation of organic components with high thermal dissociation energies. At the base of some profiles the humus has characteristics close to those of translocated humus in freely drained soils.

Summary Principles governing the choice of a pyrolysis-gas chromatography method for work on soils and organic macromolecules are reviewed, and the method is applied to the discrimination of mull and mor humus in freely drained soils. Relatively undecomposed surface humus shorizons yield pyrolysis products characteristic of lignin, but these are not present in mineral horizons apart from traces persisting in some podzol A horizons. Mor humus incorporated in A horizons is characterized by a high pyrolysate content of furfurals and phenols whilst mull humus yields proportionately more pyrrole. Humus in B horizons yields a low furfural content with respect to pyrrole and a low content of polar heteroatomic molecules with respect to benzene, toluene, and light molecules of low polarity.

Summary The polysaccharide extracted by alkali from a Countesswells series soil has been fully methylated and the hydrolysis products identified by GC-MS. The parent neutral sugars are galactose, glucose, mannose, arabinose, xylose, fucose and rhamnose and these constitute about 40 per cent of the polysaccharide. The analysis shows that hexose components are predominantly present in 1 3 and 1 4 linkages and pentose sugar in 1 4 linkages. About 20 per cent of the residues were in branching positions. From the number of non-reducing terminal groups present the average molecular weight of the methylated material has been calculated to be about 1460 compared with a value of 2700 obtained by vapour pressure osmometry. This contrasts with much higher values reported for unmethylated soil polysaccharides. The mixture of derivatives obtained supports the concept that soil polysaccharide originates in both plants and microorganisms.

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Potential evapotranspirometers and various evaporation pans are commonly used to estimate potential evapotranspiration. These instruments are expensive, large, difficult to install and use. A black Bellani plate atmometer is suggested as a simple instrument to replace these large tanks. It consists of a black, porous, ceramic plate, mounted on a glazed ceramic cup. The plate surface is kept moist by the water held in the cup. Evaporation from this surface is a measure of the drying ability of the air and is called "latent evaporation". Comparisons of various evaporimeters have shown the Bellani atmometer to be accurate and responsive to meteorological variables.Latent evaporation was compared with open-pan evaporation (from a 4-foot diameter buried tank) at several sites across Canada. Latent evaporation was also compared with evapotranspiration from irrigated field plots and evapotranspirometer tanks. The conversion factor of 0.0034 inches of evapotranspiration from irrigated fields, and 0.0032 inches of open-pan evaporation for each cubic centimetre of latent evaporation has been tentatively established. Latent evaporation and moisture block methods have shown excellent agreement in scheduling irrigation.

A mathematical equation is suggested which relates rate of development of a wheat crop to photoperiod and to day and night temperatures. The model takes into consideration lower and upper critical limits and the optimum value of each of these three environmental factors. Coefficients in the model were evaluated by a special iterative regression technique using a set of crop data gathered at several stations across Canada over a 5-year period. Reproducibility of results was demonstrated by using a second of test data from the same stations for a second 5-year period as well as by using a third set of completely independent data from the Argentine.This model (called a triquadratic model)was compared with three others: model 1 based on the average rate of development, model 2 based on the simple heat unit concept and model 3 based on the photothermal concept.It was found to be superior to these three models as an estimator of the influence of the environmental factors on the rate of development of a wheat crop for all three sets of data. Integration of the equation on a day by day basis gives an indication of the daily rate of progress towards maturity as influenced by the environment thus resulting in a biometeorological time scale.