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During the last several decades, inter-organizational collaboration in the food sector has emerged to tackle complex problems such as sustainability. However, in practice, these networks often either fall short of their goal or disband. Therefore, we investigate the role of culture within these networks to gain insights into the transformative capacity and (dis)continuation of such agri-food networks. Although agri-food networks are a common research topic in transition studies, our understanding of the role that culture plays in them can be improved. To better understand culture in agri-food networks, we compare eight cases. Results indicate that a shared culture affect the development and continuation of these innovative networks. Despite the intention of many agri-food networks to transform the agri-food system, they tend to reproduce it and effect incremental rather than radical changes. The degree of such changes was found to be related to the cultural (dis)similarities between the agri-food network and the agri-food system.

Efficiency analysis is used for assessing links between technical efficiency (TE) of livestock farms and animal diseases. However, previous studies often do not make the link with the allocation of inputs and mainly present average effects that ignore the often huge differences among farms. In this paper, we studied the relationship between exposure to gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infections, the TE and the input allocation on dairy farms. Although the traditional cost allocative efficiency (CAE) indicator adequately measures how a given input allocation differs from the cost-minimising input allocation, they do not represent the unique input allocation of farms. Similar CAE scores may be obtained for farms with different input allocations. Therefore, we propose an adjusted allocative efficiency index (AAEI) to measure the unique input allocation of farms. Combining this AAEI with the TE score allows determining the unique input-output position of each farm. The method is illustrated by estimating efficiency scores using data envelopment analysis (DEA) on a sample of 152 dairy farms in Flanders for which both accountancy and parasitic monitoring data were available. Three groups of farms with a different input-output position can be distinguished based on cluster analysis: (1) technically inefficient farms, with a relatively low use of concentrates per 100 l milk and a high exposure to infection, (2) farms with an intermediate TE, relatively high use of concentrates per 100 l milk and a low exposure to infection, (3) farms with the highest TE, relatively low roughage use per 100 l milk and a relatively high exposure to infection. Correlation analysis indicates for each group how the level of exposure to GI nematodes is associated or not with improved economic performance. The results suggest that improving both the economic performance and exposure to infection seems only of interest for highly TE farms. The findings indicate that current farm recommendations regarding GI nematode infections could be improved by also accounting for the allocation of inputs on the farm.

Grazing management (GM) interventions, such as reducing the grazing time or mowing pasture before grazing, have been proposed to limit the exposure to gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infections in grazed livestock. However, the farm-level economic effects of these interventions have not yet been assessed so far. In this paper, the economic effects of three GM interventions in adult dairy cattle were modelled for a set of Flemish farms for which data were available: later turnout on pasture (GM1), earlier housing near the end of the grazing season (GM2), and reducing the daily grazing time (GM3). Farm accountancy data were linked to Ostertagia ostertagi bulk tank milk ELISA results and GM data for 137 farms. The economic effects of the GM interventions were investigated through a combination of efficiency analysis and a whole-farm simulation model. Modelling of GM1, GM2 and GM3 resulted in a marginal economic effect [5th; 95th percentiles] of € 8.36 [−222; 88], € −9.05 [−143; 38] and € −53.37 [−301; 87] per cow per year, respectively. The results suggest that the dairy farms modelled can improve their economic performance by postponing the turnout date, but that advancing the housing date or reducing daily grazing time mostly leads to a lower net economic farm performance. Overall, the GM interventions resulted in a higher technical efficiency and milk production but these benefits were offset by increased feed costs as a result of higher maintenance and cultivation costs. However, results highly differ between farms, indicating the need to evaluate GM interventions at the individual farm level for appropriate decision support.

This paper gives an overview on the traditional Jatropha curcas L. (physic nut) production practices as a multipurpose vegetable resource in the Totonacapan, Mexico, and the social acceptability of changes involved both in its agronomic management and use, promotion by the Mexican Energy Ministry through a special program, which, in the case for J. curcas L., includes, exclusively, toxic genotypes. In this region, there is important infra-specific genetic diversity for non-toxic genotypes, which have been used by the local indigenous population for centuries, mainly for human consumption (roasted seeds). In contrast with other studies about the industrial-scale productivity of physic nut as a monoculture for biodiesel yield, this research assessed the several functions of this species within local, traditional agroecosystems and as part of the family’s diet. In order to evaluate the pertinence of its diffusion in relation with the Totonac economy, the feasibility of implementing the official program was critically assessed, by using a binary logistic mathematical model for the “farmers’ willingness to adopt it. The results show the following barriers to agricultural adoption: (1) a low financial capacity of farmers; (2) the current price instability of J. curcas seeds; (3) the Totonac familys’ need to cultivate all the plant species involved in their agroecosystems for economic and cultural reasons. Nevertheless, J. curcas remains as a very important plant resource for the local people, with several important contributions to farmers’ livelihoods, and multiple roles (economic, ecological and cultural) that add resilience to the Totonac’s traditional agroecosystems. The monoculture of J. curcas established only for biodiesel production in different regions of Mexico, has not led to a significant increase in the income of local farmers, because government policies have been ineffective in recognizing the several functions of this species in the local agroecosystems from the peasant’ perspective. This critical situation could be repeated in the Totonacapan, negatively affecting, not only the local non-toxic genotypes, but also this ancestral culture and consequently the Totonac’s economy.

espanolMuchas ciudades se enfrentan al reto de reducir su huella ecologica, pero al mismo tiempo mejorar la calidad de vida de sus ciudadanos. Del mismo modo, el sistema alimentario mundial se enfrenta a grandes retos de sostenibilidad. Este trabajo parte de la observacion de que la agricultura (peri) urbana tiene muchos potenciales lazos funcionales con la ciudad (por ejemplo: reconectar a agricultores y ciudadanos, el uso productivo del espacio y residuos urbanos) que podrian contribuir a su desarrollo sostenible. En el area de la ciudad de Gante, en Belgica, han surgido varias iniciativas de cadena corta de alimentacion las cuales muestran un potencial significativo para aumentar la sostenibilidad del abastecimiento alimentario urbano mediante la exploracion de las posibilidades del uso multifuncional de la tierra y cerrar la brecha entre el productor y el consumidor. Sin embargo, estas iniciativas estan todavia muy dispersas y la mayoria de ellos no llegan a la escala que seria necesaria para realmente desafiar al regimen dominante de alimentacion urbano y aumentar significativamente su sostenibilidad. Basandose en entrevistas en profundidad y en la teoria de la transicion, este trabajo utiliza un analisis desde perspectiva multinivel para identificar oportunidades y obstaculos en iniciativas de cadena corta alimentaria (peri-) urbanas en Gante para desarrollar y desafiar significativamente al regimen dominante de alimentacion urbano. Los resultados revelan importantes oportunidades de crecimiento en el estimulante clima politico y social en Gante, pero tambien muestran que un mayor desarrollo de las iniciativas de cadena corta alimentaria se ve obstaculizado considerablemente por puntos de vista tradicionales sobre patrones de uso de suelo (peri) urbanos y las dificultades para llegar a costes de eficiencia en la produccion a pequena escala. La solucion de estos problemas no solo requiere una accion a nivel del gobierno de la ciudad, sino tambien un cambio en las regulaciones a niveles institucionales mas altos y un cambio dentro de los propios consumidores. EnglishMany cities face the challenge to reduce their ecological footprint, but at the same time improve the quality of life for their citizens. Likewise, the global food system is facing major sustainability challenges. This paper starts from the observation that (peri-) urban agriculture has many potential functional ties with the city (e.g. reconnecting farmers and citizens, productive use of space and urban waste) that could contribute to its sustainable development. In the city region of Ghent, in Belgium, several short food chain initiatives have emerged that show significant potential to increase the sustainability of urban food provisioning by exploring possibilities for multifunctional land use and closing the gap between producer and consumer. However, these initiatives are still very scattered and most of them fail to reach the scale that would be necessary to really challenge the dominant urban food regime and significantly increase its sustainability. Based on in-depth interviews and transition theory, this paper uses a Multi-Level Perspective analysis to identify opportunities and bottlenecks for (peri-)urban short food chain initiatives in Ghent to develop and significantly challenge the dominant urban food regime. The results reveal important opportunities for growth in the stimulating political and social climate in Ghent, but also show that further development of the short food chain initiatives is considerably hindered by traditional views on (peri) urban land use patterns and difficulties to reach cost-efficiency with small-scale production. Solving these issues not only requires action at the level of the city government, but also a change in regulations at higher institutional levels and change within the consumers themselves.

Considerable efforts are being deployed to reduce illegal forestry activities in the Congo basin forests, but these efforts seem to be concentrated on illegal timber logging and wildlife poaching to the neglect of other illegal forest activities such as Non Timber Forests Products (NTFP) harvesting and trade. This paper applies a choice experiment approach to evaluate policy options that are hypothesised to provide incentives for small scale forest actors to comply with the forestry law governing trade in NTFP in Cameroon. Data was collected from 70 traders. Based on willingness to pay measures, it was revealed that the options most preferred by the sampled traders included a decentralisation of the application process to obtain permits and a reduction in the volume of paper work involved in the process. The authors conclude that acknowledging the preferences of small scale actors can be relevant in reducing illegality in the forestry sector.

Although several international carbon footprint (CF) calculation initiatives have been developed, studies that focus specifically on estimating the CF of pigmeat are rather limited. This paper describes the application of a CF methodology, based on lifecycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions, for Flemish pigmeat production using the Publicly Available Specification methodology (PAS2050, BSI 2011), which is at present the most developed method and relevant within the agricultural and horticultural sector. Both primary and secondary data have been used to model the meat system through a chain approach. The results are reported using the functional unit of 1 kg of deboned pigmeat; they range from 4.8 to 6.4 kg CO2 eq. per kg of deboned pig meat. A sensitivity analysis has been executed on changes in herd and feed characteristics. The results have been compared to other studies on the CF of pigmeat in the EU and with CF studies on milk and beef production in Flanders. Furthermore, two major hotspots in the CF have been defined: 1) the composition and production of feed and 2) manure production and usage. It is important to mention that the CF is a good indicator for greenhouse gas emissions, but it is not an indicator for environmental impact in general. This article helps to fill the void in the CF literature that existed around pigmeat products and to define a benchmark for the CF of pigmeat.

The need to shift from a fossil fuel based economy towards a more bio-based economy has received a lot of attention in public debates and policy making in recent years. However, there seems to be some inconsistency in how a bio-based economy is defined as well as how to estimate the size of this bio-based economy. The current article shows, using a Bibliometric analysis, that the topic "bio-based economy" does not come up extensively in the literature by mid 2010. Moreover, it seems that estimating the importance of the whole of a bio-based economy (and thereby not only focusing on one type of production or product) for a region or country is quite rare, besides a few examples. Within Flanders, one such study has been executed by order of the Flemish government. The current article suggests a framework that can be used to estimate the size of the bio-based economy in other regions or countries. It is based on several steps, so called critical points related to conceptualization, disaggregation, information and valuation. The critical points depend on who has and who wants the information, what the context is, what kind of data is available and whether the research should be comparable. The authors suggest that by following their proposed steps, a reliable estimate of the size of the bio-based economy can be calculated.

Stocking density is a prominent topic in public debates on animal welfare and was one of the reasons for the European Commission to set limits to the stocking density on broiler farms. The objective of this paper was to calculate in detail the financial impact of changes in technical and management variables due to decreasing stocking densities in line with new European Union (EU) regulations. Therefore, the productive performance indicators such as BW, mortality, or feed conversion and farm technical data such as water consumption and heating of 3 independent experiments conducted at a poultry research station in Flanders (Belgium) were combined. Using the partial budget technique only those elements that change with stocking density have been taken into account. Reducing stocking density implies a recalculation of all costs on a reduced number of birds. This yields an economic situation that leaves hardly any profit margin for most of the broiler producers under the present market conditions. It was found that the critical threshold of stocking density for maintaining profitability under the present market and technical conditions is around 46 kg/m(2), thus well above the EU maximum of 42 kg/m(2). It is shown, however, that with changing broiler feed and meat prices, the impact might be less negative in economic terms.

With increasing water scarcity, research on policy options for improved water allocation and governance has become an urgent priority for many developing and developed countries. More and more, the focus is placed on institutional reforms but evaluating institutional alternatives is a challenging task. This paper takes a comparative approach and confronts case study data from Tunisia and South Africa, highlighting the importance of water rights reforms for irrigators. Using contingent valuation methods, the benefits for water users of changes in water rights systems are quantified. In both countries, willingness to pay estimates reveal that, from the farmers' perspective, significant improvements can be made to current water rights systems. This is valuable information for policy makers to guide institutional reforms.

Soil erosion causes major on-site problems, including the loss of productive topsoil, poor seedling emergence and soil crusting, all of which represent an important economic loss for farmers. Moreover, off-site problems are also very serious. These include sedimentation of river basins and small streams and flooding of roads, all with significant costs to society. This article describes the situation in West Flanders, a province of Belgium. We discuss the severity of erosion, perceptions as to the erosion problem, the agricultural practices that can potentially counteract or avoid erosion and the types of policy that have been developed to control erosion. Using the Institutions of Sustainability (IoS) framework, we emphasise the importance of awareness and awareness raising with regard to the erosion problem in order to trigger policy and farming action. We describe the specific elements that have led to the design of different types of policy that try to limit soil erosion and increase the uptake of soil erosion control strategies by farmers. We conclude that a policy approach based on mixed instruments that are integrated at a local level can be successful in mitigating the erosion problem. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper upgrades generic and partial information from parasitological research for farm-spe - cific decision support, using two methods from managerial sciences: partial budgeting and frontier analysis. The analysis focuses on strategic deworming in pig finishing and assesses both effects on economic performance and nutrient efficiency. The application of partial budgeting and frontier analysis is based on a production-theoretical system analysis which is necessary to integrate parasitological research results to assess aggregate economic and environmental impacts. Results show that both statistically significant and insignificant parasitological research results have to be taken into account. Partial budgeting and frontier analysis appear to be complementary methods: partial budgeting yields more discriminatory and communicative results, while frontier methods provide addi - tional diagnostics through exploring optimization possibilities and economic-environmental trade-offs. Strategic deworming results in a win-win effect on economic and environmental performances. Gross margin increases with 3 to 12 € per average present finisher per year, depending on the cyclic pig price conditions. The impact on the nutrient balance ranges from +0.2 to -0.5 kg nitrogen per average present finisher per year. The observed efficiency improvements are mainly technical and further economic and environmental optimizations can be achieved through input re-allocation. A user-friendly spreadsheet is provided to translate the generic experimental information to farm-specific conditions.

The growth rate of poultry meat production is not sufficient to satisfy the per capita meat requirement in Bangladesh. Therefore ways to improve the efficiency of the existing production technologies must be investigated if these demands are to be met. This review examines ways this could be achieved. The technical, allocative and economic efficiency of poultry meat production based on farm level survey data was estimated using the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach. The study used 100 commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh for the calendar year of 2007. The results demonstrated that there is substantial technical, allocative and economic inefficiency in poultry production in Bangladesh. Under the constant return to scale (CRS) specification, technical, allocative and economic efficiencies were 88, 70 and 72% respectively, whereas under the variable returns to scale (VRS) specification those efficiencies were 89, 73, 66% respectively. Thus, the results indicate that efficiencies varied substantially across the sample farms. In order to attempt to explain some of these variations, the efficiency scores were regressed based on farm specific variables such as the farmer's age, education, experience, total landholdings, poultry farm size and level of training using a Tobit regression framework. The estimated DEA model identified that there is great potential for increasing poultry farm efficiency using the existing level of inputs and resources more efficiently. Specifically it showed that the level of education and training the farmer receives are two of the most important factors contributing to the variations in efficiency seen during this study. These research findings are valuable to policy makers and extension workers in order to guide policies towards increasing efficiency.

Rangelands around the globe characteristically provide a diversity of services to local communities, and in this way contribute effectively to the well-being of societies worldwide. In light of the ever increasing rate of consumption of natural resources, instating sustainable management policies is a crucial matter for these regions of great ecological importance. In order for a management policy to be sustainable, it needs to be socially acceptable, which is rendered more difficult when a diversity of services (and corresponding diversity of preferences) is involved. Socially acceptable decision making is only possible by taking into account each stakeholder's preferences in a tractable way. To enable rangeland managers to take into account stakeholders' conflicting preferences in an acceptable manner, we present a decision making method that uses each stakeholder's preferences when determining social intensities of preferences to be processed by an outranking method. The supplied social intensities will benefit the rangeland manager, who is responsible for instating a management plan that guarantees rangeland conservation, as these social intensities provide an increased insight into the prevalent interest in each of the services. This will enable a more easily communicated justification of the final decision. We illustrate the applicability of this approach for the Lar rangeland in Iran.

Although the desirability of collective action in the marketing of agricultural products is widely recognized both in the academic literature and in government policy, not much has been done to find out why some farmers do or do not wish to take part. The present study measured the attitudes of farmers (n = 284) towards voluntary group marketing (VGM) in rural Uganda, and how they influenced farmers' intentions to join VGM. The findings show that, overall, farmers are favourably disposed to participating in VGM. Perceived benefits are the strongest predictor for this intention. Recommendations from extension agents, government officials, NGOs and close associates (such as farming peers and immediate family) also have significant correlations with the likelihood of farmers participating in collective marketing initiatives. The perceived disadvantages do not appear to play a major role in a farmer's choice to participate, and the perceived lack of market and of benefits also has a negligible relationship with the likelihood of participating in VGM. It is recommended that collective marketing is promoted by increasing farmers' expectations objectively about the positive outcomes of VGM. In addition to extension agents, farming peers and family members should be involved in the process of promoting these notions.

Wastewater constitutes an alternative water source for the irrigation sector. To fully benefit from it, and reduce possible adverse effects on public health and the environment, we need to look at the regulation of the practice. A prerequisite for this is an institutional analysis, and the points to consider are the institutional mandates. We used the city of Hyderabad, India, as a case study. There, irrigation with wastewater is not supported or recognized, but it happens in practice. It takes place in an indirect and unplanned way. Institutions fail at enforcing regulations, and little attention is given to formalization of the practice. With this article, we aim to untangle the institutional setup, and by doing so, identify the constraints surrounding development of a formal practice. Ultimately, we aim at contributing to the discussion on the agricultural use of wastewater.

In order to evaluate the influence of management decisions on the nutrient balance of dairy farms a simulation model was developed. Three farm systems have been simulated: zero grazing, winter milk and summer milk. From the simulated farm systems the zero grazing farm has in all scenarios the lowest N-surplus. The winter milk farm system has a higher N-surplus than zero grazing but lower than the summer milk farm system. The results further indicate the positive effects of maize feeding in addition to grazing. More maize in the ration is especially good to lower the N-surplus during the grazing period in the summer. The benefits of more maize in the ration decrease when the fertilizer application rates decrease.

On marginal farms, and in agriculture in general, sustainability is largely guaranteed by a broad range of survival strategies, closely interlinked and embedded in the household structure of typical family farms. This paper reports results of a socio-economic study carried out among Belgian farmers, focusing specifically on the opportunities offered by different forms of diversification. Analyses from in-depth interviews indicate the possible role of new activities in the survival of many farms. The curative potential of this strategy is, however, strongly conditioned by the availability of capital within the household. Therefore, off-farm employment is often the most accessible strategy, not only for the survival of the household, but also for supplementing the income necessary to maintain the farm activities.

This study was aimed at the identification of location and household characteristics influencing the choice of keeping livestock or practising crop production in a post-conflict region in Central Africa. Two thousand eight hundred randomly selected families from Brazzaville (Congo) were surveyed. From these, 6% are both keeping livestock and producing crops, 3% are keeping livestock only, 24% are producing crops only and 67% are not producing crops nor keeping livestock. From these four groups, respectively, 135, 84, 246 and 245 households were interviewed to collect further data on household and location characteristics. Non-parametric and parametric techniques were compared as tools to analyse the groups. In the non-parametric classification tree method CART following variables were identified as being important for the engagement in keeping livestock or urban agriculture: keeping livestock before 1997, practising agriculture before 1997, property size, locality, income, availability of water, professional activity and level of instruction. Including surrogate variables resulted in extra variables: age, availability of electricity and sex. In the multinomial regression only the most important variables from the classification tree were withheld and other insights were obtained. The results of this research highlighted the shortcomings of multinomial regression. Fitting a full model containing all possible interactions becomes an impossible task with 20 explanatory variables. Using the classification tree information in a multinomial model appears the most appropriate solution, and this method is a useful tool for further work in the analysis of livestock and crop production systems. The importance of the historical component in the decision to practise crop production and keep livestock was demonstrated. Being involved in crop production develops roots, which cannot be destroyed by impediments such as periods of conflict. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Since the early 1990s, Flemish agriculture has been confronted with serious nutrient problems. Recently, the Flemish Government started encouraging farmers to take responsibility for the manure problem. This was done by giving them the choice between a manure administration system, based on fixed standards, or a nutrient balance system. In this project a methodology for the composition of nutrient balances at farm level in Flanders was developed. This methodology defines input–output models for the different sectors (cattle, pigs and poultry) and fixes rules on how to determine quantities and nutrient contents for several products. In addition, nutrient flows were followed during 1 year on 40 Flemish farms in different sectors and a mineral balance was calculated for each of them. Four major restrictions to the accurate calculation of farm level nutrient balances were identified: (1) the wide variability that is allowed between actual and reported nutrient composition of concentrated feed; (2) the estimates of the amount and composition of manure; (3) the assessment of changes in standing stock on the farm between the beginning and end of the reporting period and (4) the accuracy of the data supplied by the farmers.

Rural livelihood in semiarid Tanzania is centred on subsistence agricultural production under conditions of a stochastic rainfall pattern and highly erodible soils. This paper draws data from 499 smallholder farmers in Dodoma region–central Tanzania, to study their adaptive efforts and the influences on agricultural productivity in this agro-ecological zone. Results show a significant relationship (p = 0.05 and p = 0.01) between variables explaining adaptive efforts and soil erosion. However, most of the variables were not significant in explaining variability in agricultural productivity. Therefore, the paper concludes that smallholders' livelihood strategies in semiarid Tanzania are not sustainable, as they tend to increase environmental decay through erosion without subsequent increase in agriculture productivity.

Organic products form a growing segment of the food market. Recent estimates speak about market shares between 1 to 4.25 per cent. In Belgium the share is only 1 per cent, but the market is growing exponentially. Organic farmers in Belgium often have to sell their products as conventional products because of non‐efficient marketing systems. Marketing problems are also mentioned as one of the main reasons by conventional farmers for not converting. Most conventional farmers are not only rather sceptical about the long‐term perspectives of getting a price premium for organic products, but consider the organisation of the supply chain as one of the main sources of uncertainty and therefore as a constraint for conversion. Therefore more efforts should be made to organise the supply chain for organic products. The problem seems to be that of the egg and the chicken: for a cost‐effective supply chain a condition is to have enough producers, while for a lot of producers a cost‐effective swupply chain seems to be a necessary condition to convert, mainly because of high transaction costs linked to non‐efficient marketing.

High rainfall variability in semi-arid Tanzania makes livestock production a risky enterprise and its marketing decisions highly stochastic. This paper discusses smallholders' production and marketing strategies in the Dodoma region based on responses from 498 farmers randomly selected from four purposely sampled villages in the semi-arid ecological zone of Tanzania. Qualitative characterization of marketing and production decisions is presented. Generally the timing, frequency and amount of rainfall do to a great extent determine farmers' production and marketing strategies. Results of the quantitative analysis, however, revealed that most strategies were correlated with low productivity and profitability levels and with high environmental degradation. The findings suggest that a gradual change in production and marketing strategies is necessary to increase efficiency in this agroecological zone.

The use of improved inputs is important in increasing crop productivity. Input policy plays a crucial role in giving farmers incentives to increase their adoption and use. This paper analyses the Kenyan input policy before and after input market liberalization. Particular attention is focused on the use of fertilizer and improved seeds in maize production during this time. Price analysis shows that both fertilizer and improved seed prices rose sharply after the input market liberalization. Input profitability analysis showed that both the fertilizer–maize price ratio and the improved seeds–maize price ratio decreased after input market liberalization due to the maize price increases that occurred during the same period.

Modern farming is characterised by an increasing amount of regulation and hence of farm administration. This paper reports an empirical investigation of farmers' decisions regarding administrative tasks, and in particular the decision to outsource (part of) this administration. The theoretical framework is based on transaction cost economics, adapted and interpreted here to deal with services. The empirical analysis applies a probit model estimated using cross-section farm survey data. Results indicate significant differences in outsourcing related to characteristics such as farmers' age, farm size and institutional environment, as well as to factors such as the complexity, uncertainty and time requirements of the administration concerned. Copyright 2000, Oxford University Press.

The paper describes small-scale cattle production in Eastern province, Zambia by considering the objectives of small-scale cattle farmers, husbandry practices, indicators of productivity, typology, efficiency, constraints and objectives for small-scale cattle development. The study is based on a questionnaire survey of 209 small-scale farmers keeping cattle. The results show that small-scale farmers mainly keep cattle as a store of wealth, for draught power, to minimize risk, and for milk production. The small-scale farmers can be grouped into relatively high, medium and low-productivity small-scale farmers. The study shows that in order to improve the efficiency of small-scale cattle production in the study area, there is a need to increase calving rates and to reduce mortality rates, specifically by increasing the utilization of veterinary inputs and improving extension services. This should be accompanied by improvements in the marketing arrangements for agricultural products in general, and for cattle and cattle products in particular, and access to credit. The general strategy should consist, on the one hand, of increasing the productivity and performance of those small-scale farmers not attaining minimum productivity levels, and on the other hand, of improving the marketing possibilities for small-scale farmers who are performing well.

A simulation model has been developed to determine the impact of the implementation of environmental programmes putting restrictions on fertiliser use and mowing date on dairy farms. In the paper, the simulation model is described and results showing the trade-offs between the economic, environmental and nature protection criteria are given. Finally, the optimal compromise is found using multi-criteria analysis.

This paper provides a review of the delivery of veterinary services in Zambia in response to the privatization and liberalization policies of the government. Historically veterinary services were provided free of charge, but this led to a deterioration of the effectiveness and coverage of the veterinary services to livestock farmers. In order to address this problem, the Agriculture Sector Investment Program, launched by the government in 1996, has redefined the roles and responsibilities of both the public and private sectors in the delivery of veterinary services. The role of the public sector is limited to regulation, control and monitoring, whilst implementation of the field activities is now the responsibility of the private sector. The authors look at the roles and responsibilities of these two sectors in relation to cattle production, since cattle are the most important livestock in Zambia.

The mango growers of the Venda region of South Africa are small-scale emerging commercial mango producers. In a mixed cropping system, maize, beans and other vegetables are grown between the mango trees. The production of these crops is mostly for household consumption, while mangoes are grown for selling purposes. This article analyses the economic situation of the farms, by conducting a financial analysis of the cash flow of the mango production, and comparing the farm indicators of two groups of farmers. The objective is to develop strategy proposals for strengthening the mango farm business. The financial analysis shows that the average selling price farmers receive for achar mangoes is not high enough to make investments in a mango orchard profitable. From the farm analysis it can be derived that farmers should increase specialisation in mangoes by planting more trees per hectare, and introduce pruning and a more adapted input use. Other possible strategies are the increase of management knowledge, i...

In Benguet province in the Philippines, vegetable farmers are producing crops under difficult circumstances. The choice of the right crop is of extreme importance for their survival. Using the conflict analysis model (CAM), the basic hypothesis that farmers are choosing a crop closest to the ideal crop in terms of several criteria is tested. Hereby a match is searched between their own (subjective) preferences and the characteristics of the crop. The results show that the model is able to reconstruct the crop choice process. In the majority of cases an indifference situation is found between the crop selected by the farmer and the one indicated by the model. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Animal production in the Flemish region and pig production in particular is intensive and causing external problems related to manure disposal. At a regional level, manure disposal can be regarded as a problem of distributing the manure from farms with a surplus to farms with a shortage or to disposal alternatives. Total disposal costs will depend on the amount of manure surplus and on the location dependent disposal cost per unit. Disposal costs are an economic incentive for structural changes and cost abatement investments at farm level which will, in turn, influence the regional disposal. In order to simulate these interactions, an integrated system of models describing the regional manure disposal coordination system is developed, composed of a farm level component, an aggregation module and a regional disposal model. The possibilities for disposal cost abatement at farm level are analysed through LP modelling of representative farms. Incentives for structural change are derived from the shadow prices of the housing and land constraints in the model. Manure separation is analysed as an example of cost abatement investments.

In this article, a multicriteria approach combining several multiattribute methods is presented for the analysis of the trade-offs between economic and environmental objectives in rural planning. After separate aggregation of the economic and ecological criteria, the pareto-efficient solutions are identified. These solutions are further analyzed using a discrete version of the compromise programming. To test the sensitivity for changes in the weights, the method is combined with a method calculating the best and worst score for the distance function used in the compromise technique. For larger problems, an integer programming version of the method has been developed allowing to extend the scope of applications.

This paper presents a general evaluation framework of land consolidation projects (LCPs), based on Flemish and Portuguese case studies. The changes in land use are estimated first. Next, the economic and non-economic effects are determined using appropriate simulation models. Simulation models that estimate the effects on farmers' income for both arable and dairy regions are described with, respectively, a Portuguese and Flemish application.

In this paper a methodology is presented allowing the evaluation of possible development scenarios for a region against a set of environmental and other criteria on the basis of the assessment of the scenarios by local experts. The methodology starts with the pairwise comparison of the scenarios by different panels of local actors and decision makers. This information is aggregated using multicriteria analysis in order to arrive at a ranking of the scenarios or to analyse the trade-offs between different groups of criteria. The methodology is explained and illustrated with an example for the Gordon District in Scotland.

In this article a multicriteria method, called the Conflict Analysis Model, is developed combining the preference function approach of ELECTRE and PROMETHEE with the conflict analysis test of ORESTE. The result is a comprehensive framework for multicriteria decision making that can be applied to all kind of problems no matter whether the data are ordinal or cardinal. After a description of the methodology, the method is applied to an investment choice problem in agriculture.

Scarcity of a resource is proven to cause prudent and efficient use in many cases. This is contradicted in other studies where common property resource is shown as heavily abstracted in the face of scarcity. Our paper provides a field level examination of the ground water scarcity–use efficiency nexus using causal inference theory. We use data from villages of Madhugiri, Karnataka where groundwater is increasingly becoming a scarce resource. Groundwater Use Efficiency (GWUE) scores are calculated using the concept of sub-vector efficiency in Data Envelopment Analysis. The inefficiencies are then traced to the farm level scarcity indicators using Inverse Probability Weighting method. We use farm level proxies as scarcity indicators such as the age of irrigation! wells, irrigation investment cost and number of wells at farm level. Our study finds that water scarcity affects the GWUE negatively when conditioned on other confounders pointing to higher abstraction behavior in the face of scarcity. This result indicates that maintaining water availability levels at farm level would help in improving GWUE scores.

Concentration of rights and the access to water have become important issues in water and conflict debates in the Andes. In Bolivia the concentration of water takes place in an environment of increasing water scarcity and socio-economical differences between class, gender and ethnicity. Analysing the mechanisms of water right acquisition and access to water can serve as an input for policies to manage water-related conflicts. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate irrigation water allocation in 65 peasant communities that are part of ‘Abanico Punata’ (‘Punata Fan’), an agricultural oriented region in Bolivia, in order to understand the water-related conflicts that are taking place in the area. The results show that there is a large difference in access to water between and within the communities studied. Access is mostly determined by the number and the types of water sources households have at their disposition. Many households only have access to water from the river, which is dependent on the runoff and only provides water during the wet season. Water availability improves significantly when having access to water from reservoirs, but this access depends on customary law or on investments made during the construction of the infrastructure. Considering gender and water allocation the results show that the participation of women is small compared to that of men, as on average only 30% of water rights are registered under women’s names. Looking at ethnicity, the analysis shows that the determining factor in water allocation are the bonds of kinship and identification/recognition as a member of the community. Finally in relation to social class, it was shown that there is a correspondence between economic factors and water, especially because resources, mainly economic, enable a family to materialize their right, either during infrastructure creation or through purchase.

Wetland degradation has recently received considerable attention in research. Although wetlands are valuable ecosystems, their actual value is difficult to measure because the services they provide do not have market values. The current study tries to define the value of wetlands in the Kilombero Valley, central Tanzania. Choice modelling is used to determine communities' preferences over wetland conditions associated with various management options. The results show that the inhabitants of the Kilombero Valley desire improvements in the wetland's conditions, suggesting that the ongoing degradation is not socially optimal. Local farmers are however highly dependent on the wetland for their livelihood. In order to reduce pressure on wetlands, it is therefore necessary and imperative to explore the options of alternative income generating activities and the application of proper technologies to improve efficiency and effectiveness in crop production.

Policy designers have various water demand management (WDM) strategies to achieve efficient water use and allocation at their disposal, such as setting the price of water, decentralizing irrigation water management or improving the quality of water rights. Interestingly, most of these strategies have been applied individually without focusing on the relations between them. This paper uses a discrete choice model to analyse the scope for and the farmer’s acceptance of combinations of irrigation WDM tools. In terms of local irrigation water governance the presence or absence of collective irrigation water management among farmers in the form of water user association (WUA) is considered. Water rights are specified by the duration of the title, by their transferability and by the quality of title. Finally, four types of water pricing methods (area, crop, quota and volumetric pricing) are selected for the experimental design. Using the choice experiment we can elicit the most preferred water pricing method under different water rights, water prices and local irrigation water governance contexts. Our results indicated that under conditions of improved water rights, preference for volumetric pricing increases, while the presence of a WUA decreases this preference. We also showed that making the right combination of WDM tools considerably increases the willingness to pay for a change in scenario.

A major problem in regional planning is the choice of the plan to be implemented. Because non-monetary effects are becoming more important, a multi-criteria method is presented allowing a ranking of the alternatives on the basis of several criteria by only taking into account ordinal priorities. After the methodology has been described the method is illustrated with an application for a land consolidation project in Belgium. Copyright 1992 by Oxford University Press.

The article shows how existing multidisciplinary studies on sustainable agricultural development can be joined into a trans-disciplinary approach. Three interdisciplinary projects have been combined in a participatory discussion platform, in which researchers from different disciplines (economists, ecologists, social scientist and geographers) were brought together with a variety of stakeholders. The specific application of the developed method on agricultural development in Belgium, has revealed the need for crossing system boundaries within research, articulation of definitions on sustainable development, development of a coherent sustainability labelling policy and increasing the access to nation wide data both for researchers and policy makers.

Globalization, either directly or indirectly, has brought about profound changes in the previously existing institutional order. Specifically, in the agricultural sector, structural adjustment reforms called for the disappearance of governmental regulatory institutions (e.g. marketing boards) and lowering, if not totally removing, of various trade protection barriers in many developing countries. However, the long overdue changes in the previously extant institutional order that globalization entails surely cannot be reduced to no institutions at all. In fact, the changes in the institutional environment have had dramatic impacts on the production and market environment of many producers in less developed countries (LDCs), especially for small, non-organized farmers because of, for example, the resulting more risky environment.

La Politique Agricole Commune (PAC) est l’objet de ce numéro spécial de Regards économiques. Deux articles y sont consacrés. Le premier propose une analyse des effets économiques probables de la réforme récente de la PAC sur l’agriculture belge. Quant au second, il se demande comment rendre la PAC plus juste et plus efficace. La PAC : Une analyse de la réforme récente Les autorités régionales belges doivent se prononcer sur les différentes options de réforme de la PAC proposées par l'accord européen de juin dernier. Cet article examine les effets économiques probables de ces options sur l'agriculture belge à l'aide de deux modèles économiques complémentaires. Ce numéro donne aussi des pistes de réflexion sur quelques questions préoccupantes liées à cet accord et à l'évolution de la PAC. La PAC : Pour la rendre plus juste et plus efficace La PAC est examinée par le biais de trois questions. D’abord, quelles justifications normatives peut-on apporter à un subside de l’activité agricole pour elle même ? Ensuite, qui sont les bénéficiaires ultimes de la PAC dans ses versions passées et présente ? Enfin, peut-on reformuler une PAC dont les effets objectifs répondraient aux critères normatifs énoncés plus haut ?

Consumer concerns about food safety have been steadily growing during the last decade. Along with the recognition of the increasing power from the consumer side of food chains, this has forced agricultural producers to innovate and adapt their production methods. One of those developments is integrated production of pip fruit (IFP). This research analyses and presents motivational structures of consumers towards purchasing IP fruit in Belgium. The research methodology builds on means-end-chain (MEC) theory, with data collected through personal laddering interviews with consumers. A hierarchical value map, indicating motivational structures for farm shop purchase of IP-labelled apples, is presented. IP-apple buyers pursue typical values, with health being paramount. The findings reveal interactions between market channel characteristics and product attributes, including characteristics that refer to production methods. Also, the study shows how outlet choice influences the perception and the motivation structure of the respondents for the specific product, fresh fruit in this case. From the findings, two sets of implications are set forth. First, marketing implications pertaining to advertising through the application of the "Means-End Conceptualization of the Components of Advertising Strategy" or MECCAS model. Second, implications to producers with respect to adapting their production methods to the needs and wants of the present end consumers.

During the last two decades, the production value of the Belgian horticultural sector has increased substantially and represents almost a quarter of the total agricultural production value. Within the total production value of vegetables, greenhouse production represents almost half. Despite having so much importance, the greenhouse sector faces a lot of problems in relation to sustainability such as obtaining the necessary building and exploitation permits. The lack of space and adapted legislation results in an uncertain investment environment. The establishment of greenhouse parks, which can be defined as areas of greenhouse concentration, can satisfy the need for space. Using a survey organised amongst all horticultural holdings in an important greenhouse production area, a study has been conducted of the attitude of farmers towards the establishment of greenhouse concentration parks. A probit model is used to connect the attitude of farmers with characteristics of horticultural farms and farmers. Possible areas for greenhouse parks are also identified and evaluated. The results confirm that greenhouse concentration may be an acceptable solution for the spatial problems of horticultural farmers. The methodology used can be applied to identify and evaluate areas suitable for greenhouse concentration.