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Aeronomy is, by definition, a multidisciplinary science which can be used to study the terrestrial atmosphere, as well as any planetary atmosphere and even the interplanetary space. It was officially recognized in 1954 by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. The major objective of the present paper is to show how aeronomy developed since its infancy. The subject is so large that a guide-line has been chosen to see how aeronomy affects our atmospheric knowledge. This guideline is the solar Lyman alpha radiation which has different effects in the solar system. After a short description of the origins of aeronomy the first observations of this line are summarized since the beginning of the space age. Then the consequences of these observations are analyzed for the physics and chemistry of the neutral terrestrial atmosphere. New chemical processes had to be introduced, as well as new transport phenomena. Solar Lyman alpha also influences the structure of the Earth’s ionosphere, particularly the D-region. In the terrestrial exosphere, solar Lyman alpha scattered resonantly by atomic hydrogen is at present the only way to estimate this constituent in an almost collisionless medium. Since planetary atmospheres also contain atomic hydrogen, the Lyman alpha line has been used to deduce the abundance of this constituent. The same is true for the interplanetary space where Lyman alpha observations can be a good tool to determine the concentration. The last section of the paper presents a question which is intended to stimulate further research in aeronomy.Key words. Atmospheric composition and structure (middle atmosphere – composition and chemistry; thermosphere – composition and chemistry) – history of geophysics (atmospheric sciences)

Lake Hazen, the largest lake north of the Arctic circle, is being impacted by mercury (Hg) pollution and climate change. The lake is inhabited by two morphotypes of land-locked Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), a sensitive indicator species for pollution and climatic impacts. The objectives of this study were to describe the trends in Hg concentration over time and to determine the relationship of climate to length-at-age and Hg concentrations in each char morphotype, as well as the relationship to atmospheric Hg measurements at a nearby monitoring station. Results for Hg in char muscle were available from 20 sampling years over the period 1990 to 2021. We found significant declines in Hg concentrations for both morphotypes during the 31-year study period. Increased rain and earlier freeze-up of lake ice during the summer growing season was linked to increased length-at-age in both char morphotypes. For the large morphotype, higher total gaseous Hg in the fall and winter seasons was related to higher concentrations of Hg in char, while increased glacial runoff was related to decreases in char Hg. For the small morphotype char, increased snow and snow accumulation in the fall season were linked to declines in char Hg concentration. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation were positively related to the large char Hg trend and Arctic Oscillation was positively related to the small char Hg trend. Significant trend relationships between atmospheric Hg and Hg in biota in remote regions are rare and uniquely valuable for evaluation of the effectiveness of the Minamata Convention and related monitoring efforts., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper, (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Diet, age, and growth rate influences on fish mercury concentrations were investigated for Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in lakes of the eastern Canadian Arctic. We hypothesized that faster-growing fish have lower mercury concentrations because of growth dilution, a process whereby more efficient growth dilutes a fish's mercury burden. Using datasets of 57 brook trout and 133 Arctic char, linear regression modelling showed fish age and diet indices were the dominant explanatory variables of muscle mercury concentrations for both species. Faster-growing fish (based on length-at-age) fed at a higher trophic position, and as a result, their mercury concentrations were not lower than slower-growing fish. Muscle RNA/DNA ratios were used as a physiological indicator of short-term growth rate (days to weeks). Slower growth of Arctic char, inferred from RNA/DNA ratios, was found in winter versus summer and in polar desert versus tundra lakes, but RNA/DNA ratio was (at best) a weak predictor of fish mercury concentration. Net effects of diet and age on mercury concentration were greater than any potential offset by biomass dilution in faster-growing fish. In these resource-poor Arctic lakes, faster growth was associated with feeding at a higher trophic position, likely due to greater caloric (and mercury) intake, rather than growth efficiency., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Crown Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Dried blood spots (DBS), created by applying and drying a whole blood sample onto filter paper, provide a simple and minimally invasive procedure for collecting, transporting, and storing blood. Because DBS are ideal for use in field and resource-limited settings, we aimed to develop a simple and accurate DBS-based approach for assessing mercury (Hg) exposure and dietary carbon sources for landlocked Arctic char, a sentinel fish species in the Arctic. We collected liquid whole blood (from the caudal vein), muscle, liver, and brains of Arctic char (n = 36) from 8 lakes spanning a Hg gradient in the Canadian High Arctic. We measured total Hg concentrations ([THg]) of field-prepared DBS and Arctic char tissues. Across a considerable range, [THg] of DBS (0.04-3.38 μg/g wet wt) were highly correlated with [THg] of all tissues (r 2 range = 0.928-0.996). We also analyzed the compound-specific carbon isotope ratios (expressed as δ 13 C values) of essential amino acids (EAAs) isolated from DBS, liquid whole blood, and muscle. The δ 13 C values of 5 EAAs (δ 13 C EAAs ; isoleucine [Ile], leucine [Leu], phenylalanine [Phe], valine [Val], and threonine [Thr]) from DBS were highly correlated with δ 13 C EAAs of liquid whole blood (r 2 range = 0.693-0.895) and muscle (r 2 range = 0.642-0.881). The patterns of δ 13 C EAAs of landlocked Arctic char were remarkably consistent across sample types and indicate that EAAs are most likely of algal origin. Because a small volume of blood (~50 µL) dried on filter paper can be used to determine Hg exposure levels of various tissues and to fingerprint carbon sources, DBS sampling may decrease the burdens of research and may be developed as a nonlethal sampling technique. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:893-903. © 2020 SETAC., (© 2020 SETAC.)

Climate warming and mercury (Hg) are concurrently influencing Arctic ecosystems, altering their functioning and threatening food security. Non-anadromous Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) in small lakes were used to biomonitor these two anthropogenic stressors, because this iconic Arctic species is a long-lived top predator in relatively simple food webs, and yet population characteristics vary greatly, reflecting differences between lake systems. Mercury concentrations in six landlocked Arctic char populations on Cornwallis Island, Nunavut have been monitored as early as 1989, providing a novel dataset to examine differences in muscle [Hg] among char populations, temporal trends, and the relationship between climate patterns and Arctic char [Hg]. We found significant lake-to-lake differences in length-adjusted Arctic char muscle [Hg], which varied by up to 9-fold. Arctic char muscle [Hg] was significantly correlated to dissolved and particulate organic carbon concentrations in water; neither watershed area or vegetation cover explained differences. Three lakes exhibited significant temporal declines in length-adjusted [Hg] in Arctic char; the other three lakes had no significant trends. Though precipitation, temperature, wind speed, and sea ice duration were tested, no single climate variable was significantly correlated to length-adjusted [Hg] across populations. However, Arctic char Hg in Resolute Lake exhibited a significant correlation with sea ice duration, which is likely closely linked to lake ice duration, and which may impact Hg processing in lakes. Additionally, Arctic char [Hg] in Amituk Lake was significantly correlated to snow fall, which may be linked to Hg deposition. The lack of consistent temporal trends in neighboring char populations indicates that currently, within lake processes are the strongest drivers of [Hg] in char in the study lakes and potentially in other Arctic lakes, and that the influence of climate change will likely vary from lake to lake., (Crown Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Non-anadromous forms of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), those that are restricted to lakes and rivers, typically have higher mercury (Hg) concentrations than anadromous forms, which migrate to and from the sea. Using tissue burden data from the literature and our own analyses, we performed a screening-level risk assessment of methylmercury (MeHg) for non-anadromous Arctic char. Our assessment included 1569 fish distributed across 83 sites. Site-specific mean total Hg concentrations in non-anadromous Arctic char muscle varied considerably from 0.01 to 1.13 µg/g wet weight, with 21% (17 of 83 sites) meeting or exceeding a threshold-effect level in fish of 0.33 µg/g wet weight, and 13% (11 of 83 sites) meeting or exceeding a threshold-effect level in fish of 0.5 µg/g wet weight. Of the sites in exceedance of the 0.33-µg/g threshold, 7 were located in Greenland and 10 in Canada (Labrador, Nunavut, and Yukon). All but one of these sites were located in interfrost or permafrost biomes. Maximum total Hg concentrations exceeded 0.33 µg/g wet weight at 53% of sites (40 of the 75 sites with available maximum Hg values), and exceeded 0.5 µg/g wet weight at 27% (20 of 75 sites). Collectively, these results indicate that certain populations of non-anadromous Arctic char located mainly in interfrost and permafrost regions may be at risk for MeHg toxicity. This approach provides a simple statistical assessment of MeHg risk to non-anadromous Arctic char, and does not indicate actual effects. We highlight the need for studies that evaluate the potential toxic effects of MeHg in non-anadromous Arctic char, as well as those that aid in the development of a MeHg toxic-effect threshold specific to this species of fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:489-502. © 2018 SETAC., (© 2018 SETAC.)

Temporal trends and climate related parameters affecting the fate of legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were examined in landlocked Arctic char from four lakes in the Canadian Arctic. Among biological parameters, lipid content was a key factor explaining the concentration of most POPs in Arctic char. Legacy PCBs and OCPs generally showed declining trends of concentrations in Arctic char, consistent with past restriction on uses and emissions of POPs. However, increases in lake primary productivity (measured as chlorophyll a) exerted a dilution effect on POPs concentrations in Arctic char. Concentrations of POPs in char from the last two decades were positively correlated with interannual variations of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Higher concentrations of POPs in Arctic char were observed in 3 of the 4 lakes during positive NAO phases. This, together with increasing local Arctic temperatures, could lead to increases on POPs concentrations in char from remote Arctic Lakes in future decades. Also, if there are nearby secondary sources as may be the case for Resolute Lake, located near an airport where increasing levels were found for hexachlorobenzene and toxaphene, probably due to the mobilization from secondary sources in soils.

Using a whole-watershed approach and a combination of historical, contemporary, modeled and paleolimnological datasets, we show that the High Arctic's largest lake by volume (Lake Hazen) has succumbed to climate warming with only a ~1 °C relative increase in summer air temperatures. This warming deepened the soil active layer and triggered large mass losses from the watershed's glaciers, resulting in a ~10 times increase in delivery of glacial meltwaters, sediment, organic carbon and legacy contaminants to Lake Hazen, a >70% decrease in lake water residence time, and near certainty of summer ice-free conditions. Concomitantly, the community assemblage of diatom primary producers in the lake shifted dramatically with declining ice cover, from shoreline benthic to open-water planktonic species, and the physiological condition of the only fish species in the lake, Arctic Char, declined significantly. Collectively, these changes place Lake Hazen in a biogeochemical, limnological and ecological regime unprecedented within the past ~300 years.

We sampled landlocked Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from four lakes (Small, 9-Mile, North, Amituk) in the Canadian High Arctic that span a gradient of mercury contamination. Metals (Hg, Se, Tl, and Fe) were measured in char tissues to determine their relationships with health indices (relative condition factor and hepatosomatic index), stable nitrogen isotope ratios, and liver histology. A subcellular partitioning procedure was employed to determine how metals were distributed between potentially sensitive and detoxified compartments of Arctic char livers from a low- and high-mercury lake (Small Lake and Amituk Lake, respectively). Differences in health indices and metal concentrations among char populations were likely related to differences in feeding ecology. Concentrations of Hg, Se, and Tl were highest in the livers of Amituk char, whereas concentrations of Fe were highest in Small and 9-Mile char. At the subcellular level we found that although Amituk char had higher concentrations of Tl in whole liver than Small Lake char, they maintained a greater proportion of this metal in detoxified fractions, suggesting an attempt at detoxification. Mercury was found mainly in potentially sensitive fractions of both Small and Amituk Lake char, indicating that Arctic char are not effectively detoxifying this metal. Histological changes in char livers, mainly in the form of melano-macrophage aggregates and hepatic fibrosis, could be linked to the concentrations and subcellular distributions of essential or non-essential metals., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Recent and historical deposition of mercury (Hg) was examined over a broad geographic area from southwestern Northwest Territories to Labrador and from the U.S. Northeast to northern Ellesmere Island using dated sediment cores from 50 lakes (18 in midlatitudes (41-50 degrees N), 14 subarctic (51-64 degrees N) and 18 in the Arctic (65-83 degrees N)). Distinct increases of Hg overtime were observed in 76% of Arctic, 86% of subarctic and 100% of midlatitude cores. Subsurface maxima in Hg depositional fluxes (microg m(-2) y(-1)) were observed in only 28% of midlatitude lakes and 18% of arctic lakes, indicating little recent reduction of inputs. Anthropogenic Hg fluxes adjusted for sediment focusing and changes in sedimentation rates (deltaF(adj,F)) ranged from -22.9 to 61 microg m(-2) y(-1) and were negatively correlated (r = -0.57, P < 0.001) with latitude. Hg flux ratios (FRs; post-1990)/pre-1850) ranged from 0.5 to 7.7. The latitudinal trend for Hg deltaF(adj,F) values showed excellent agreement with predictions of the global mercury model, GRAHM for the geographic location of each lake (r = 0.933, P < 0.001). The results are consistent with a scenario of slow atmospheric oxidation of mercury, and slow deposition of reactive mercury emissions, declining with increasing latitude away from emission sources in the midlatitudes, and support the view that there are significant anthropogenic Hg inputs in the Arctic.

Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus L.), the top predator in High Arctic lakes, often is used as a bioindicator of Hg contamination in Arctic aquatic ecosystems. The present study investigated effects of trophic position, size, and age of Arctic char in Lake Hazen, the largest lake in the Canadian High Arctic (81 degrees 50'N, 70 degrees 25'W), on Hg bioaccumulation. In addition, several essential (Se, K) and nonessential elements (Tl, Cs) in char muscle tissue were examined to compare their behavior to that of Hg. Trophic position of Arctic char was identified by stable isotope (delta15N) signature. Temporal trends of Hg from seven sampling campaigns over a 16-year period (1990-2006) were investigated for the overall data and for one trophic class. Concentrations of Hg were not correlated with age but were positively related to fork length and trophic position. Large char with greater delta15N signatures (> 12 per thousand) had larger Hg concentrations (0.09-1.63 microg/g wet wt) than small char with smaller delta15N signatures (< 12 per thousand, 0.03-0.32 microg/g wet wt), indicating that Hg concentrations increased with trophic position. Nonessential Cs and Tl showed relationships to age, length, and trophic position similar to those of Hg, indicating their potential to bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Essential Se and K did not show these relationships. Concentrations of Hg were adjusted using delta15N, leading to less within-year variability and a more consistent temporal trend. The delta15N-adjusted trend showed no decline of Hg in Arctic char from Lake Hazen (1990-2006) in the overall data set and in the small morphotype. Trends for the same period before the adjustment were not significant for the overall data set, but a slight decrease was apparent in the small morphotype. The results confirm the need to consider trophic position and fish size when monitoring temporal trends of Hg, particularly for species with different morphotypes.

Fisheries for arctic freshwater and diadromous fish species contribute significantly to northern economies. Climate change, and to a lesser extent increased ultraviolet radiation, effects in freshwaters will have profound effects on fisheries from three perspectives: quantity of fish available, quality of fish available, and success of the fishers. Accordingly, substantive adaptation will very likely be required to conduct fisheries sustainably in the future as these effects take hold. A shift to flexible and rapidly responsive 'adaptive management' of commercial fisheries will be necessary; local land- and resource-use patterns for subsistence fisheries will change; and, the nature, management and place for many recreational fisheries will change. Overall, given the complexity and uncertainty associated with climate change and related effects on arctic freshwaters and their biota, a much more conservative approach to all aspects of fishery management will be required to ensure ecosystems and key fished species retain sufficient resiliency and capacity to meet future changes.

Spatial and temporal trends of mercury (Hg) and 22 other elements were examined in landlocked Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from six lakes in the Canadian Arctic (Char, Resolute and North Lakes, and Amituk Lake on Cornwallis Island, Sapphire Lake on Devon Island and Boomerang Lake on Somerset Island). The objectives of the study were to compare recent concentrations of Hg and other metals in char with older data from Amituk, Resolute and Char Lakes, in order to examine temporal trends as well as to investigate factors influencing spatial trends in contaminant levels such as lake characteristics, trophic position, size and age of the fish. Geometric mean Hg concentrations in dorsal muscle ranged from 0.147 microg/g wet weight (ww) in Resolute Lake to 1.52 microg/g ww in Amituk Lake for samples collected over the period 1999-2003. Char from Amituk Lake also had significantly higher selenium (Se). Mercury in char from Resolute Lake was strongly correlated with fish length, weight, and age, as well as with thallium, lead and Se. In 5 of 6 lakes, Hg concentrations were correlated with stable nitrogen isotope ratios (delta15N) and larger char were feeding at a higher trophic level presumably due to feeding on smaller char. Weight adjusted mean Hg concentrations in char from Amituk Lake, and unadjusted geometric means in Char Lake and Resolute Lakes, did not show any statistically significant increase from the early 1990s to 2003. However, small sample sizes from 1999-2003 for fish <1000 g limited the power of this comparison in Char and Amituk Lakes. In Resolute Lake char, manganese, strontium and zinc showed consistent decreases from 1997 or 1999 to 2003 while nickel generally increased over the 6 year period. Differences in char trophic level inferred from delta15N values best explained the higher concentrations of Hg in Amituk Lake compared to the other lakes.

The toxic effects of cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) on cellular energy metabolism and ion homeostasis were investigated in hepatocytes from the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. The metal content of cells did not increase during incubation with Cu, whereas a dose-dependent increase was seen with Cd. Cell viability was unaffected in the presence of 100 microM Cd and 10 microM Cu but was significantly reduced after 30 min of exposure to 100 microM Cu, both in the presence and absence of extracellular calcium. Oxygen consumption (VO(2)) was not affected by 100 microM Cd or 10 microM Cu, whereas 100 microM Cu caused a significant and calcium-dependent increase of VO(2). Lactate production and basal glucose release were not altered by either of the metals. However, the epinephrine-stimulated rate of glucose release was significantly reduced after 2 h of incubation with 100 microM Cu. Hepatocytes exposed to Cd showed only a marginal increase of intracellular free calcium (Ca(i)(2+)), whereas with Cu a pronounced and dose-dependent increase of Ca(i)(2+) was induced after a delay of 10 to 15 min, the calcium being of extracellular origin. Intracellular pH was not altered by Cd but decreased significantly in the presence of Cu. Overall our data demonstrate that Cu, but not Cd, is acutely toxic for trout hepatocytes. Since Cu does not enter the cells in the short term it appears to exert its acutely toxic effects at the cell membrane. Although Cu toxicity is associated with an uptake of calcium from extracellular space, leading to an elevation of cellular respiration, cytotoxicity does not appear to be dependent on the presence of extracellular calcium.

Background: Calcium represents a key mediator of cold ischemia/reperfusion (CIR) injury presumably by affecting mitochondrial function. In this study, we investigated cellular and mitochondrial changes of calcium homeostasis in sublethally damaged human endothelial cells., Methods: Changes in cellular and mitochondrial calcium concentrations were studied after cold ischemia in University of Wisconsin solution for 12 hr and reperfusion in ringer solution. Cytosolic-free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]c) and mitochondrial-free calcium content ([Ca2+]m) were analyzed by fura-2 and rhod-2 fluorescence, respectively. Pretreatment of cells with ruthenium red (RR) or a H+-ionophore was used to inhibit mitochondrial calcium uptake. Mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsim) was measured by 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro- 1,1',3,3'-tetraethylbenzimidazolylcarbocyanine iodide and 3,3'-dihexyloxacarbocyanine iodide fluorescence., Results: Twelve-hr cold ischemia did not induce apoptosis in endothelial cells. In such sublethally damaged cells, [Ca2+]c rose from approximately 20 nmol/L after cold ischemia to approximately 120 nmol/L during reperfusion. Pretreatment with RR leads to an approximately 5-fold rise in [Ca2+]c. Image analysis revealed a significant increase of [Ca2+]m in a subpopulation of mitochondria during reperfusion. This was not the case in RR-pretreated cells. DeltaPsim decreased significantly during cold ischemia and was sustained during reperfusion. The loss of DeltaPsim can be related to a reduced portion of mitochondria exhibiting high DeltaPsim., Conclusions: Our results suggest that cytosolic calcium influx during CIR is buffered by a selective portion of mitochondria in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. These mitochondria protect cells against cytosolic calcium overload and probably against subsequent cell injury.

As a consequence of atmospheric deposition, effects of pollutants such as acidification and metal contamination are evident even in remote aquatic ecosystems of mountain and polar regions. Due to similar environmental characteristics (e.g., oligotrophy, low buffering capacity, long ice-cover, high precipitation rates), clearwater high altitude and high latitude lakes represent very sensitive ecosystems, which are extremely susceptible to even slight changes of the environment. Thus, the environmental relevance of Cd and Pb for both types of lakes is discussed in relation to their extraordinary sensitivity to environmental changes. The impact of Cd and Pb on fish from high altitude and high latitude lakes is reviewed and biotic and abiotic factors controlling bioavailability and toxicity of metals to fish are summarized. Apart from direct toxic effects of low pH, acidification increases the bioavailability of metals for fish. Furthermore, low concentrations of dissolved organic carbon and suspended particles take influence on the uptake and toxicity of metals in fish from clear high altitude and high latitude lakes. Since even very low concentrations of Cd and Pb may result in high metal concentrations in fish, evaluation of critical metal loads for clear high altitude and high latitude lakes is of major importance.

In vitro studies showed that an ascorbic acid concentration of 15 mM depressed the trypsin activity in three fish species by 50%, whereas dehydroascorbic acid and ascorbic sulfate did not inhibit trypsin or chymotrypsin activities. However, this inhibitory action is unlikely in vivo because ascorbic acid is rapidly oxidized in the digestive tract content to the dehydroascorbic acid.