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This study examined COVID-19 infection and hospitalizations among people with serious mental illness who resided in residential care group homes in Massachusetts during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors analyzed data on 2261 group home residents and COVID-19 data from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Outcomes included positive COVID-19 tests and COVID-19 hospitalizations March 1, 2020–June 30, 2020 (wave 1) and July 1, 2020–March 31, 2021 (wave 2). Associations between hazard of outcomes and resident and group home characteristics were estimated using multi-level Cox frailty models including home- and city-level frailties. Between March 2020 and March 2021, 182 (8%) residents tested positive for COVID-19, and 51 (2%) had a COVID-19 hospitalization. Compared with the Massachusetts population, group home residents had age-adjusted rate ratios of 3.0 (4.86 vs. 1.60 per 100) for COVID infection and 13.5 (1.99 vs. 0.15 per 100) for COVID hospitalizations during wave 1; during wave 2, the rate ratios were 0.5 (4.55 vs. 8.48 per 100) and 1.7 (0.69 vs. 0.40 per 100). In Cox models, residents in homes with more beds, higher staff-to-resident ratios, recent infections among staff and other residents, and in cities with high community transmission risk had greater hazard of COVID-19 infection. Policies and interventions that target group home-specific risks are needed to mitigate adverse communicable disease outcomes in this population. Clinical Trial Registration Number This study provides baseline (i.e., pre-randomization) data from a clinical trial study NCT04726371. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smoke-free policies (SFP) in multi-unit housing are a promising tool for reducing exposure to tobacco smoke among residents. Concerns about increased housing instability due to voluntary or involuntary transitions induced by SFPs have been a primary barrier to greater widespread adoption. The impact of SFP implementation on transitions out of public housing in federally funded public housing authorities in Massachusetts was evaluated. Tenancy data from the Department of Housing and Urban Development were used to determine the time from admission to transitioning out of public housing based on a cohort study design. Periods of exposure to SFPs were defined based on dates of SFP implementation at each PHA. Multi-level Cox regression models were fit to estimate the effects of SFPs on the hazard of transitioning, adjusting for household- and PHA-level characteristics. Analyses were conducted in 2021‒2022. There were 44,705 households with a record of residence in Massachusetts PHAs over 2009‒2018. Over this period, despite increasing adoption of SFPs among the PHAs, rates of transition remained steady at around 5‒8 transitions per 1,000 household-months. There was no overall association between exposure to SFPs and transitions among the full sample (adjusted HR=0.99, 95% CI=0.95, 1.04, p =0.794). However, the association varied significantly by age group, race/ethnicity, timing of SFP adoption, and era of admission. Adoption of SFPs in public housing had a minimal overall impact on turnover for households in Massachusetts, though disparities in the impact were observed between different demographic and PHA-level subgroups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many older Americans do not receive needed care for mental health and substance use disorders (MHSUD), and there are substantial racial and ethnic disparities in receipt of this care across the lifespan. Medicare introduced cost-sharing parity for outpatient MHSUD care during the period 2010-14, reducing beneficiaries' out-of-pocket share of MHSUD spending from 50 percent to 20 percent. Among traditional Medicare beneficiaries ages sixty-five and older, we examined changes in MHSUD use and spending during the period 2008-18 for low-income beneficiaries with the cost-sharing reduction versus a control group of beneficiaries with free care throughout the study period among Black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian/Alaska Native versus White beneficiaries. Among older Medicare beneficiaries, overall use of MHSUD services increased during this period. For White beneficiaries, MHSUD cost-sharing parity was associated with an increased likelihood of having specialty MHSUD visits and medication use and a reduced likelihood of having unmonitored MHSUD medication use and MHSUD emergency department visits and hospitalizations. However, cost-sharing parity was associated with smaller or no gains in MHSUD services use for racial and ethnic minority beneficiaries compared with White beneficiaries, thus widening racial and ethnic disparities in MHSUD care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVES: The 2021 American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) increased the availability and magnitude of premium tax credits (PTCs) for consumers purchasing individual marketplace plans in 2021-2022. Millions currently purchase PTC-ineligible plans off of the marketplace. We estimate the proportion of off-marketplace enrollees who would be eligible for the expanded PTCs under ARPA, calculate PTC amounts for eligible enrollees, and examine factors influencing plan choice that could inform outreach efforts. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed data from a survey of a random sample of off-marketplace enrollees in California in 2017 (n = 829). METHODS: Using survey data including self-reported income, household size, and employment status combined with 2021 benchmark premium data from Covered California, we estimate eligibility for PTCs and potential PTC amounts under ARPA among off-marketplace enrollees. We adjust for both survey design weights and poststratification weights. RESULTS: Among off-marketplace enrollees, we estimate that approximately 12% are potentially ineligible for PTCs because they reported incomes less than 100% of the poverty level or because they had access to employer-sponsored coverage for their family through themselves or their partner. The median annual PTC in 2021 for eligible off-marketplace enrollees was $311 but varied greatly by age, family or individual plan, and household income (5%-95% range, $0-$14,836). In 2017, 69% of off-marketplace enrollees were unaware that they had to enroll in marketplace plans to receive PTCs, and 51% received enrollment assistance from insurance brokers. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest the need for targeted outreach to encourage off-marketplace enrollees to switch to marketplace plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Complex polypharmacy (CP) is common in bipolar disorder (BD). We assessed the associations between CP, adherence, and side effect burden, and patient traits associated with clinical improvement in relationship to CP.Methods: We conducted a secondary analysis of 482 adult BD participants in the Bipolar CHOICE trial. We examined the associations between CP (use of ≥3 BD medications) and non-adherence (missing >30% of BD medication doses in the last 30 days) and side effect burden (Frequency, Intensity and Burden of Side Effects Rating scale) using multivariate models with patient random effects. We used logistic regression to assess the patient traits associated with remission among those with majority CP use (Clinical Global Impression-Severity for BD score ≤2 for 8+ weeks).Results: 43% of patients had any CP and 25% had CP for the majority of the study. CP was associated with non-adherence (OR = 2.51, 95% CI [1.81, 3.50]), but not worse side effect burden. Among those with CP, 16% achieved remission; those with non-adherence, comorbid social or generalized anxiety disorder, or BD I vs. II were less likely to achieve remission among those with CP.Limitations: There could be unmeasured confounding between use of CP and side effect burden or adherence. Adherence was measured by self-report, which could be subject to reporting error.Conclusions: BD patients with CP were less likely to adhere to therapy, and those with worse adherence to CP were less likely to clinically respond. Clinicians should assess medication adherence prior to adding another agent to medication regimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tax penalty for noncompliance with the Affordable Care Act's individual mandate is to be eliminated starting in 2019. We investigated the potential impact of this change on enrollees' decisions to purchase insurance and on individual-market premiums. In a survey of enrollees in the individual market in California in 2017, 19 percent reported that they would not have purchased insurance had there been no penalty. We estimated that premiums would increase by 4-7 percent if these enrollees were not in the risk pool. The percentages of enrollees who would forgo insurance were higher among those vdth lower income and education, Hispanics, and those who had been uninsured in the prior year, relative to the comparison groups. Compared to older enrollees and those with two or more chronic conditions, respectively, younger enrollees and those with no chronic conditions were also more likely to say that they would not have purchased insurance. Eliminating the mandate penalty alone is unlikely to destabilize the California individual market but could erode coverage gains, especially among groups whose members have historically been less likely to be insured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Affordable Care Act (ACA) introduced reforms to mitigate adverse selection into and within the individual insurance market. We examined the traits and predicted medical spending of enrollees in California post-ACA.Data Sources: Survey of 2,103 enrollees in individual market plans, on- and off-exchange, in 2014.Study Design: We compared actual versus potential participants using data from the 2014 California Health Interview Survey on respondents who were individually insured or uninsured. We predicted annual medical spending for each group using age, sex, self-rated health, body mass index, smoking status, and income.Principal Findings: Average predicted spending was similar for actual ($3,377, 95 percent CI [$3,280-$3,474]) and potential participants ($3,257 [$3,060-$3,454]); however, some vulnerable subgroups were underrepresented. On- versus off-exchange enrollees differed in sociodemographic and health traits with modest differences in spending ($3,448 [$3,330-$3,565] vs. $3,175 [$3,012-$3,338]).Conclusions: We did not find evidence of selection into the overall insurance pool in 2014; however, differences by exchange status reflect the importance of including off-exchange enrollees in analyses and the pool for risk adjustment. California's post-ACA individual market has been a relative success, highlighting the importance of state policies and outreach efforts to encourage participation in the market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To provide a research agenda and recommendations to address inequities in access to health care. Data Sources and Study Setting: The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) organized a Health Equity Summit in July 2022 to evaluate what equity in access to health care means in the context of AHRQ's mission and health care delivery implementation portfolio. The findings are a result of this Summit, and subsequent convenings of experts on access and equity from academia, industry, and the government. Study Design: Multi‐stakeholder input from AHRQ's Health Equity Summit, author consensus on a framework and key knowledge gaps, and summary of evidence from the supporting literature in the context of the framework ensure comprehensive recommendations. Data Collection/Extraction Methods: Through a stakeholder‐engaged process, themes were developed to conceptualize access with a lens toward health equity. A working group researched the most appropriate framework for access to care to classify limitations identified during the Summit and develop recommendations supported by research in the context of the framework. This strategy was intentional, as the literature on inequities in access to care may itself be biased. Principal Findings: The Levesque et al. framework, which incorporates multiple dimensions of access (approachability, acceptability, availability, accommodation, affordability, and appropriateness), is the backdrop for framing research priorities for AHRQ. However, addressing inequities in access cannot be done without considering the roles of racism and intersectionality. Recommendations include funding research that not only measures racism within health care but also tests burgeoning anti‐racist practices (e.g., co‐production, provider training, holistic review, discrimination reporting, etc.), acting as a convener and thought leader in synthesizing best practices to mitigate racism, and forging the path forward for research on equity and access. Conclusions: AHRQ is well‐positioned to develop an action plan, strategically fund it, and convene stakeholders across the health care spectrum to employ these recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Black and Latino children experience significantly worse asthma morbidity than their white peers for multifactorial reasons. This study investigated differences in family-provider interactions for pediatric asthma, based on race/ethnicity. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of parent surveys of asthmatic children within the Population-Based Effectiveness in Asthma and Lung Diseases Network. Our study population comprised 647 parents with survey response data. Data on self-reported race/ethnicity of the child were collected from parents of the children with asthma. Outcomes studied were responses to the questions about family-provider interactions in the previous 12 months: (1) number of visits with asthma provider; (2) number of times provider reviewed asthma medications with patient/family; (3) review of a written asthma treatment plan with provider; and (4) preferences about making asthma decisions. Results: In multivariate adjusted analyses controlling for asthma control and other co-morbidities, black children had fewer visits in the previous 12 months for asthma than white children: OR 0.63 (95% CI 0.40, 0.99). Additionally, black childrenwere less likely to have awritten asthma treatment plan given/reviewed by a provider than their white peers, OR 0.44 (95% CI 0.26, 0.75). There were no significant differences by race in preferences about asthma decision-making nor in the frequency of asthma medication review. Conclusion: Black children with asthma have fewer visits with their providers and are less likely to have awritten asthma treatment plan thanwhite children. Asthma providers could focus on improving these specific family-provider interactions in minority children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patient reports of their adherence behaviors, concerns about statins, and perceptions of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk could inform approaches for improving adherence to statin therapy. We examined these factors and their associations with adherence. Methods: We conducted telephone interviews among a stratified random sample of adults receiving statins within an integrated delivery system (N = 730, 81% response rate) in 2010. We sampled equal numbers of individuals in three clinical risk categories: those with 1) coronary artery disease; 2) diabetes or other ASCVD diagnosis; and 3) no diabetes or ASCVD diagnoses. We assessed 15 potential concerns about and barriers to taking statins, and perceived risk of having a heart attack in the next 10 years (0–10 scale). We calculated the proportion of days covered (PDC) by statins in the last 12 months using dispensing data and used multivariate logistic regression to examine the characteristics associated with non-adherence (PDC<80%). Analyses were weighted for sampling proportions. Results: Sixty-one percent of patients with PDC<50% reported not filling a new prescription, splitting or skipping statins, or stopping refilling statins in the last 12 months vs. 15% of those with PDC≥80% (p<0.05). The most commonly reported concerns about statins were preferring to lower cholesterol with lifestyle changes (66%), disliking medications in general (59%), and liver or kidney problems (31%); having trouble remembering to take statins (9%) was the most common reason for taking less than prescribed. In multivariate analyses, clinical risk categories were not significantly associated with odds of non-adherence; however, those with higher perceived risk of heart attack were less likely to be non-adherent. Conclusions: Patient-reported medication-taking behaviors were correlated with statin PDC and those with lower perceived cardiovascular risk were less likely to be adherent. These findings highlight the importance of eliciting from and educating patients on their adherence behaviors and ASCVD risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine changes in children's albuterol use and out-of-pocket (OOP) costs in response to increased copayments after the Food and Drug Administration banned inhalers with chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) propellants.Setting: Four health maintenance organizations (HMOs), two that increased copayments for albuterol inhalers that went from generic CFC-containing to branded CFC-free versions, and two that retained generic copayments for CFC-free inhalers (controls). We included children with asthma aged 4-17 years with commercial coverage from 2007 to 2010.Design: Interrupted time series with comparison series.Data: We obtained enrollee and plan characteristics from enrollment files, and utilization data from pharmacy and medical claims; OOP expenditures were extracted from pharmacy claims for two HMOs with cost data available.Findings: There were no significant differences in albuterol use between the group with increased cost-sharing and controls with respect to changes after the policy change. There was a postpolicy increase of $6.11 OOP per month per child using albuterol among those with increased cost-sharing versus $0.36 in controls; the difference between groups was significant (p < .01).Conclusions: Increased copayments for brand-name CFC-free albuterol after the CFC ban did not lead to a decrease in children's albuterol use, but it led to a modest increase in OOP costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Viewpoint discusses the potential negative effects of not renewing the American Rescue Plan Act, including an increase in out-of-pocket premiums in 2023 and a loss of protections afforded by prior coverage gains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Affordable Care Act includes financial assistance that reduces both premiums and cost-sharing amounts for lower-income Americans, to increase the affordability of health insurance coverage and care. To receive both types of assistance, enrollees must purchase a qualified health plan through a public insurance exchange, and those eligible for the cost-sharing reduction must purchase a silver-tier plan. We estimate that 31 percent of individual-market enrollees in California who were likely eligible for financial assistance purchased plans that were not silver tier or that were not sold on the state's exchange and thus missed opportunities to receive premium or cost-sharing assistance or both. Lower-income enrollees who chose plans not eligible for subsidies had two to three times higher odds of reporting difficulty paying premiums and out-of-pocket expenses during the year, compared to those who chose eligible plans. Regardless of how the structure of the individual market evolves in the coming years, efforts are likely needed to steer lower-income enrollees away from financially suboptimal plan choices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective There is limited information on the protective value of Medicare Part D low-income subsidies ( LIS). We compared responses to drug costs for LIS recipients with near-poor (≤200 percent of the Federal Poverty Level) and higher income beneficiaries without the LIS. Data Sources/Study Setting Medicare Advantage beneficiaries in 2008. Study Design We examined three drug cost responses using multivariate logistic regression: cost-reducing behaviors (e.g., switching to generics), nonadherence (e.g., not refilling prescriptions), and financial stress (e.g., going without necessities). Data Collection Telephone interviews in a stratified random sample ( N = 1,201, 70 percent response rate). Principal Findings After adjustment, a comparable percentage of unsubsidized near-poor (26 percent) and higher income beneficiaries reported cost-reducing behaviors (23 percent, p = .63); fewer LIS beneficiaries reported cost-reducing behaviors (15 percent, p = .019 vs near-poor). Unsubsidized near-poor beneficiaries were more likely to reduce adherence (8.2 percent) than higher income (3.5 percent, p = .049) and LIS beneficiaries (3.1 percent, p = .027). Near-poor beneficiaries also more frequently experienced financial stress due to drug costs (20 percent) than higher income beneficiaries (11 percent, p = .050) and LIS beneficiaries (11 percent, p = .015). Conclusions Low-income subsidies provide protection from drug cost-related nonadherence and financial stress. Beneficiaries just above the LIS income threshold are most at risk for these potentially adverse behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food insecurity and poor nutrition are prevalent in the United States and associated with chronic diseases. Understanding relationships among food insecurity, diet, and health care utilization can inform strategies to reduce health disparities. Our aim was to determine associations between food security status and inpatient and outpatient health care utilization and whether they differed by dietary quality in lower-income adults. This was a cross-sectional study of data from the 2009-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Participants were 13,956 lower-income (<300% federal poverty level) adults 18 years and older in the United States. Self-reported health care utilization in the past 12 months included no usual source of care, any outpatient visit, any mental health service use, and any hospitalization. Multiple logistic regression was used to study the association between food insecurity and health care utilization. Analyses were stratified by diet-related comorbidities to account for potential confounding and mediation of health care utilization, and by dietary quality. In a sample of lower-income adults <300% federal poverty level, 4,319 participants (27.4%) were food insecure, 2,208 (15.0%) were marginally food secure, and 7,429 (57.6%) were food secure. Food insecurity was associated with having no usual source of care (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.30; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.52), any mental health service use (aOR 2.02; 95% CI 1.61 to 2.52), and any hospitalization (aOR 1.19; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.41). Food-insecure adults were more likely to report no outpatient visits if they had diet-related comorbidities (aOR 1.45; 95% CI 1.10 to 1.92) or the lowest dietary quality (aOR 1.53; 95% CI 1.06 to 2.23). Marginal food security was associated with having no usual source of care (aOR 1.22; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.44). Adults with food insecurity were more likely to be hospitalized, use mental health services, and have no usual source of care. Food-insecure participants with diet-related comorbidities or poor diet were less likely to have outpatient visits. Hospitalizations and mental health visits represent underused opportunities to identify and address food insecurity and dietary intake in lower-income patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2006 numerous insurers have stopped serving the low-income segment of the Medicare Part D program, forcing millions of beneficiaries to change prescription drug plans. Using data from participating plans, we found that Medicare payments do not sufficiently reimburse insurers for the relatively high medication use among this population, creating perverse incentives for plans to avoid this part of the Part D market. Plans can accomplish this by increasing their premiums for all beneficiaries to an amount above regional benchmarks. We demonstrate that improving the accuracy of Medicare's risk and subsidy adjustments could mitigate these perverse incentives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To compare drug costs and adherence among Medicare beneficiaries with the standard Part D coverage gap versus supplemental gap coverage in 2006. Data Sources. Pharmacy data from Medicare Advantage Prescription Drug (MAPD) plans. Study Design. Parallel analyses comparing beneficiaries aged 65+ with diabetes in an integrated MAPD with a gap versus no gap ( n=28,780); and in a network-model MAPD with a gap versus generic-only coverage during the gap ( n=14,984). Principal Findings. Drug spending was 3 percent (95 percent confidence interval [CI]: 1–4 percent) and 4 percent (CI: 1–6 percent) lower among beneficiaries with a gap versus full or generic-only gap coverage, respectively. Out-of-pocket expenditures were 189 percent higher (CI: 185–193 percent) and adherence to three chronic drug classes was lower among those with a gap versus no gap (e.g., odds ratio=0.83, CI: 0.79–0.88, for oral diabetes drugs). Annual out-of-pocket spending was 14 percent higher (CI: 10–17 percent) for beneficiaries with a gap versus generic-only gap coverage, but levels of adherence were similar. Conclusions. Among Medicare beneficiaries with diabetes, having the Part D coverage gap resulted in lower total drug costs, but higher out-of-pocket spending and worse adherence compared with having no gap. Having generic-only coverage during the gap appeared to confer limited benefits compared with having no gap coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High deductible—based health insurance plans require consumers to pay for care until reaching the deductible amount. However, information is limited on how well consumers understand their benefits and how they respond to these costs. In telephone interviews, we found that consumers had limited knowledge about their deductibles yet frequently reported changing their care-seeking behavior because of the cost. Poor knowledge limited the effects of the deductible design, with some consumers avoiding care for services that were exempt from the deductible. Consumers need more information and decision support to understand their benefits and to differentiate when care is necessary, discretionary, or unnecessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High deductible-based health insurance plans require consumers to pay for care until reaching the deductible amount. However, information is limited on how well consumers understand their benefits and how they respond to these costs. In telephone interviews, we found that consumers had limited knowledge about their deductibles yet frequently reported changingtheir care-seeking behavior because of the cost. Poor knowledge limited the effects of the deductible design, with some consumers avoiding care for services that were exempt from the deductible. Consumers need more information and decision support to understand their benefits and to differentiate when care is necessary, discretionary, or unnecessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study to determine Medicare beneficiaries' knowledge of the benefits and cost responses of the Medicare Advantage Prescription Drug plan in the U.S. The study measured awareness of the coverage gap and cost-coping behaviors such as switching medications, non-adherence and the forgoing of basic needs by the elderly in the U.S. The design, setting and participants of the telephone interview study are defined. Research showed a 40% awareness of a coverage gap in the drug plan by those interviewed, while 30% reported engaging in one of the cost-coping behaviors measured.

Background: Patients face increasing insurance restrictions on prescription drugs, including generic-only coverage. There are no generic inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), which are a mainstay of asthma therapy, and patients pay the full price for these drugs under generic-only policies. We examined changes in ICS use following the introduction of generic-only coverage in a Medicare Advantage population from 2003-2004. Methods: Subjects were age 65+, with asthma, prior ICS use, and no chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (n = 1,802). In 2004, 74.0% switched from having a $30 brand-copayment plan to a generic-only coverage plan (restricted coverage); 26% had $15-25 brand copayments in 2003-2004 (unrestricted coverage). Using linear difference-in-difference models, we examined annual changes in ICS use (measured by days-of-supply dispensed). There was a lower-cost ICS available within the study setting and we also examined changes in drug choice (higher- vs. lower-cost ICS). In multivariable models we adjusted for socio-demographic, clinical, and asthma characteristics. Results: In 2003 subjects had an average of 188 days of ICS supply. Restricted compared with unrestricted coverage was associated with reductions in ICS use from 2003-2004 (-15.5 days-of-supply, 95% confidence interval (CI): -25.0 to -6.0). Among patients using higher-cost ICS drugs in 2003 (n = 662), more restricted versus unrestricted coverage subjects switched to the lower-cost ICS in 2004 (39.8% vs. 10.3%). Restricted coverage was not associated with decreased ICS use (2003-2004) among patients who switched to the lower-cost ICS (18.7 days-of-supply, CI: -27.5 to 65.0), but was among patients who did not switch (-38.6 days-of-supply, CI: -57.0 to -20.3). In addition, restricted coverage was associated with decreases in ICS use among patients with both higher- and lower-risk asthma (-15.0 days-of-supply, CI: - 41.4 to 11.44; and -15.6 days-of-supply, CI: -25.8 to -5.3, respectively). Conclusion: In this elderly population, patients reduced their already low ICS use in response to losing drug coverage. Switching to the lower-cost ICS mitigated reductions in use among patients who previously used higher-cost drugs. Additional work is needed to assess barriers to switching ICS drugs and the clinical effects of these drug use changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background:: Despite substantial trial evidence that demonstrates the effectiveness of pharmacologic treatment for reducing blood pressure (BP) and cardiovascular events, many patients are nonadherent to their hypertension treatment. Objectives:: The purpose of this study was to examine patient adherence to hypertension medications using pharmacy data (ie, outpatient, inpatient, and mail-order prescriptions) and the association between adherence measures and systolic BP (SBP) control. Methods:: The study included Medicare+Choice beneficiaries (aged ⩾ 65 years) who were continuously enrolled in an integrated delivery system in 2003, and who had documented hypertension and received ⩾1 hypertension drug in 2002. This analysis used automated clinical data and the 2000 US Census. We estimated 2 measures of hypertension treatment adherence in 2003 using the supply of dispensed drugs in days (proportion of days covered ⩾80%): (1) adherence to ⩾1 hypertension drug; and (2) adherence to the full hypertension treatment regimen. We defined the regimen by the number of hypertension drugs used concurrently in 2002. We assessed adherence annually and during the 30, 60, and 90 days before an SBP measurement. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between adherence and the number of drugs in the hypertension regimen, as well as the association between adherence and elevated SBP (⩾140 mm Hg). We adjusted for patient sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Results:: The majority (52.8%) of patients had multidrug hypertension regimens. In 2003, 87.3% of subjects were adherent to ⩾ 1 hypertension drug; 72.1% were adherent to their full regimen. After adjustment, we found that subjects with multidrug regimens were significantly more likely to be adherent to ⩾ 1 drug and significantly less likely to be adherent to their full regimen, compared with patients on a 1-drug regimen. Over one-third of subjects had elevated SBP in 2003. Both adherence measures were associated with lower odds of having elevated SBP (eg, odds ratio = 0.87 [95% CI, 0.84–0.89] for adherence to the full regimen). For subjects with multidrug regimens, partial adherence and nonadherence to the regimen were associated with higher odds of having elevated SBP. Conclusions:: Adherence measures using automated pharmacy data can identify patients who are nonadherent to their drug treatment regimen and who are more likely to have inadequately controlled BP. Adherence measures that account for the number of drugs in a patients'' drug regimen might help identify additional patients at risk for poor BP outcomes due to partial treatment adherence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Adjunctive antidepressants are frequently used for bipolar depression but their clinical efficacy has been studied in few trials and little is known about how co‐occurring manic symptoms affect treatment response. Methods: Bipolar Clinical Health Outcomes Initiative in Comparative Effectiveness (N = 482) and Lithium Treatment Moderate‐Dose Use Study (N = 281) were similar comparative effectiveness trials on outpatients with bipolar disorder comparing four different randomized treatment arms with adjunctive personalized guideline‐based treatment for 24 weeks. Adjunctive antidepressant treatment could be used if clinically indicated and was assessed at every study visit. Adjusted mixed effects linear regression analyses compared users of antidepressants to nonusers overall and in different subcohorts. Results: Of the 763 patients, 282 (37.0%) used antidepressant drugs during the study. Antidepressant users had less improvement compared to nonusers on the Clinical Global Impression Scale for Bipolar Disorder and on measures of depression. This was particularly true among patients with co‐occurring manic symptoms. Exclusion of individuals begun on antidepressants late in the study (potentially due to overall worse response) resulted in no differences between users and nonusers. We found no differences in treatment effects on mania scales. Conclusions: In this large cohort of outpatients with bipolar disorder, clinically indicated and guideline‐based adjunctive antidepressant treatment was not associated with lower depressive symptoms or higher mania symptoms. The treatment‐by‐indication confounding due to the nonrandomized design of the trials complicates causal interpretations, but no analyses indicated better treatment effects of adjunctive antidepressants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Changing Medicaid fees is a common approach for states to address budget fluctuations, and many currently set Medicaid physician fees at levels lower than Medicare and private insurers. The Affordable Care Act included a temporary Medicaid fee bump for primary care providers (PCPs) in 2013-2014 that recently led to both an increase and then subsequent decrease in PCP fees in many states.Objective: To conduct a systematic literature review on the effects of changing Medicaid fees on provider participation and enrollees' access to care and service use.Methods: We searched PubMed/Medline and JSTOR and identified 18 studies that assessed the longitudinal impact of provider fee changes in Medicaid on the outcomes of interest. We summarized information on study design, methods, and findings.Results: Seven studies examined the impact of fee changes on provider participation in Medicaid. Of these, three studies found that fee increases were associated with positive effects on providers' likelihood of accepting Medicaid patients or on their Medicaid caseloads. Five studies that examined the impact of fee changes on Medicaid enrollees' access to care found a positive association with one or more access measure, such as having a usual source of care or appointment availability. Lastly, eight of 14 studies that examined service use found positive associations between fee changes and at least one measure of use, such as changes in the probability of enrollees having any visit, the number of visits, and shifts in the site of care toward office-based care; others largely did not find significant associations.Conclusions: There is mixed evidence on the impact of changing Medicaid fees on provider participation and enrollees' service use; however, increasing fees appears to have more consistent positive effects on access to care. Whether these improvements in access translate into better health outcomes or downstream cost savings are critical questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Patients with bipolar disorder treated with lithium often require additional antipsychotics or anticonvulsants. However, the comparative effectiveness and safety of these agents as add-on to lithium has not been studied. Methods: This secondary analysis combined two similar 24-week trials on outpatients with bipolar disorder randomized to lithium (target serum level 0.4–0.6 mEq/L). Guideline-based adjunctive antipsychotics (Li+AP) and anticonvulsants (Li+AC) could be used if clinically indicated and was assessed at every study visit. Response was measured on the Clinical Global Impression scale and we performed adjusted mixed effects linear regression analyses. Analysis of variance tests compared metabolic measures including a binary diagnosis of metabolic syndrome before and after 24 weeks of treatment. Results: Among 379 outpatients (57% female, mean age 38 years, mean Clinical Global Impression 4.4), users of Li+AP (N = 50, primarily quetiapine and aripiprazole) improved to a similar degree (mean Clinical Global Impression improvement = 1.6, standard deviation = 1.5) as those using lithium-only (i.e. without adjunctive antipsychotics or anticonvulsants, N = 149, mean Clinical Global Impression improvement = 1.7, standard deviation = 1.4) (p = 0.59). Users of Li+AC (N = 107, primarily lamotrigine and valproate, mean Clinical Global Impression improvement = 1.2, standard deviation = 1.3) and users of Li+AP+AC (N = 73, mean Clinical Global Impression improvement = 1.1, standard deviation = 1.3) showed worse response compared to lithium-only users (all p < 0.01). When comparing Li+AP to Li+AC, users of Li+AP improved slightly better on general (p = 0.05) and manic symptoms (p = 0.01), but showed a worse development of glucose, triglycerides, and metabolic syndrome. Conclusion: Despite treatment-by-indication confounding, these findings are relevant for real-world treatment settings and emphasize the need for randomized trials on this clinically important topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Objective: The Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was created by the Affordable Care Act in 2011 to increase access to federally qualified health centers (FQHCs), and now comprises the majority of federal Section 330 funds that support FQHCs. The CHCF, however, has faced numerous expirations and short‐term extensions since 2015, which could pose challenges to long‐term planning, especially for FQHCs that rely more on federal funds. To examine the potential implications of changes or lapses in federal funding, we identified FQHCs that likely receive a larger share of revenue from federal funds and compared their local area traits with other FQHCs. Study Design: We used publicly available data for 2010–2018 from the Uniform Data System, which contains information on FQHC traits, patient volume, and non‐patient revenue. Because total and patient revenue were unavailable, we classified FQHCs as receiving a high share of total revenue from Section 330 funding if >75% of their non‐patient revenue was from Section 330 funding and > 25% of their patients were uninsured (as a proxy for patient revenue). We assessed the association between annual changes in Section 330 funding and FQHC patient volume for FQHCs meeting this classification vs. not, using multivariate linear regression with FQHC‐level random effects. We then compared FQHCs with vs. without a high share of revenue from Section 330 funding in 2018 using multivariate logistic regression. Lastly, we compared county‐level COVID‐19 mortality data for these FQHCs. Population Studied: FQHCs, excluding those in US territories, that received Section 330 funding 2010–2018 (N = 1258 in 2018). Principal Findings: Although the mean proportion of uninsured FQHC patients decreased from 38.2% to 23.9% from 2010–2018, more FQHCs were classified as having a high Section 330 revenue share: 7.9% in 2010 (N = 80) versus 16.2% in 2018 (N = 203). The positive association between annual changes in Section 330 funding and patient volume was greater for FQHCs classified as having high Section 330 revenue share vs. not (+0.05 percentage point greater increase in patient volume [95% CI: 0.03–0.07] for a 1‐ppt increase in funding). In 2018, compared to other FQHCs, those with a high Section 330 revenue share were smaller, more often located in the South (68.5% vs. 27.7%; aOR = 2.94, 95% CI: 1.27–6.81 vs. Northeast) and primary care shortage areas (57.6% vs. 30.1%; aOR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.23–3.00), and less likely in Medicaid expansion states (35.5% vs. 77.7%, aOR = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.21–0.52). In bivariate analyses, FQHCs with high Section 330 revenue share were located in counties with higher mean COVID‐19 mortality rates (e.g., 102.2 vs. 84.8 deaths/100,000 for May–December 2020, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Patient volume was more responsive to changes in Section 330 funding for FQHCs with high proportions of uninsured patients and non‐patient revenue from Section 330 funds. FQHCs that could be more vulnerable to lapses in federal funding are more frequently located in the South, primary care shortage areas, states without Medicaid expansion, and counties with higher COVID‐19 mortality rates. Implications for Policy or Practice: These findings underscore the importance of longer‐term reauthorization of the CHCF to maintain consistent access to safety net care for underserved populations, including those disproportionately impacted by COVID‐19. Primary Funding Source: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Objective: The Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded coverage for young adults by allowing them to remain dependents on their parents' plans until age 26 (in 2010) and expanding Medicaid to childless adults with incomes <138% of the federal poverty level (FPL) (in 2014). However, even post‐ACA, uninsured rates by age group were highest among young adults. In 2014, Massachusetts also expanded Medicaid eligibility for children to 19‐20‐year‐olds with incomes up to 150% FPL, which could reduce potential gaps in coverage for those who would otherwise age out of eligibility for Medicaid as children after age 18. We used the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database to examine changes in coverage for Medicaid enrollees who turned 19 years old before and after the policy change. Study Design: We used data from the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database (MA‐APCD) from 2012–2016 to examine two cohorts: Medicaid enrollees age 18 as of January 2012 and as of January 2014, who turned 19 years old prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion (pre‐ and post‐expansion cohorts, respectively). Monthly coverage changes for each cohort were examined for 2 years until they turned 21 years old (2012–2014 or 2014–2016). We classified months without insurance enrollment records as uninsured. We used logistic regression models to compare the likelihood of being uninsured for 3 or more months at age 19–20 and 20–21 for the pre‐ vs. post‐expansion cohorts, adjusting for gender, diagnoses of asthma, autism, obesity, mental illness, and intellectual and development disabilities, and ZIP code socioeconomic status (SES). Population Studied: Medicaid enrollees age 18 in January 2012 (N = 32,832) and January 2014 (N = 31,894) in the MA‐APCD. Principal Findings: In both cohorts, 49% were female and 29% lived in low SES ZIP codes; those who turned 19 prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were less likely to have a baseline diagnosis of asthma (12.1% vs. 12.9%, p < 0.05), obesity (7.6% vs. 8.7%, p < 0.05), and mental illness (17.4% vs. 18.8%, p < 0.05). Enrollees who turned 19 prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were more likely to have ≥3 months of commercial insurance at age 19–20 (8.5% vs. 3.6%; OR = 1.85, 95% CI 1.7, 2.0) and ≥ 3 months without insurance (17.0% vs. 1.2%; OR = 20.3, 95% CI 17.4, 23.6). Differences persisted at age 20–21, although both cohorts had access to Medicaid expansion for low‐income adults in these years (7.6% vs. 4.9%, OR = 1.4, 95% CI 1.3,1.6 for ≥3 months of commercial insurance; 11.5% vs. 0.9%, OR = 16.4, 95% CI 13.7, 19.5 for ≥3 months without insurance). Conclusions: Disruptions in insurance coverage for young adults aging out of Medicaid were substantially reduced in Massachusetts after the state expanded Medicaid for children to cover 19–20‐year‐olds and expanded coverage for low‐income adults. Commercial insurance coverage was also less likely for young adults after Medicaid expansion. Medicaid enrollees that entered adulthood prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were more likely to be uninsured in years after Medicaid expansion. Implications for Policy or Practice: Expanding Medicaid eligibility for children to those ages 19–20 could substantially reduce the risk of becoming uninsured for low‐income children entering young adulthood. Primary Funding Source: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Objective: The Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was created by the Affordable Care Act in 2011 to increase access to federally qualified health centers (FQHCs), and now comprises the majority of federal Section 330 funds that support FQHCs. The CHCF, however, has faced numerous expirations and short‐term extensions since 2015, which could pose challenges to long‐term planning, especially for FQHCs that rely more on federal funds. To examine the potential implications of changes or lapses in federal funding, we identified FQHCs that likely receive a larger share of revenue from federal funds and compared their local area traits with other FQHCs. Study Design: We used publicly available data for 2010–2018 from the Uniform Data System, which contains information on FQHC traits, patient volume, and non‐patient revenue. Because total and patient revenue were unavailable, we classified FQHCs as receiving a high share of total revenue from Section 330 funding if >75% of their non‐patient revenue was from Section 330 funding and > 25% of their patients were uninsured (as a proxy for patient revenue). We assessed the association between annual changes in Section 330 funding and FQHC patient volume for FQHCs meeting this classification vs. not, using multivariate linear regression with FQHC‐level random effects. We then compared FQHCs with vs. without a high share of revenue from Section 330 funding in 2018 using multivariate logistic regression. Lastly, we compared county‐level COVID‐19 mortality data for these FQHCs. Population Studied: FQHCs, excluding those in US territories, that received Section 330 funding 2010–2018 (N = 1258 in 2018). Principal Findings: Although the mean proportion of uninsured FQHC patients decreased from 38.2% to 23.9% from 2010–2018, more FQHCs were classified as having a high Section 330 revenue share: 7.9% in 2010 (N = 80) versus 16.2% in 2018 (N = 203). The positive association between annual changes in Section 330 funding and patient volume was greater for FQHCs classified as having high Section 330 revenue share vs. not (+0.05 percentage point greater increase in patient volume [95% CI: 0.03–0.07] for a 1‐ppt increase in funding). In 2018, compared to other FQHCs, those with a high Section 330 revenue share were smaller, more often located in the South (68.5% vs. 27.7%; aOR = 2.94, 95% CI: 1.27–6.81 vs. Northeast) and primary care shortage areas (57.6% vs. 30.1%; aOR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.23–3.00), and less likely in Medicaid expansion states (35.5% vs. 77.7%, aOR = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.21–0.52). In bivariate analyses, FQHCs with high Section 330 revenue share were located in counties with higher mean COVID‐19 mortality rates (e.g., 102.2 vs. 84.8 deaths/100,000 for May–December 2020, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Patient volume was more responsive to changes in Section 330 funding for FQHCs with high proportions of uninsured patients and non‐patient revenue from Section 330 funds. FQHCs that could be more vulnerable to lapses in federal funding are more frequently located in the South, primary care shortage areas, states without Medicaid expansion, and counties with higher COVID‐19 mortality rates. Implications for Policy or Practice: These findings underscore the importance of longer‐term reauthorization of the CHCF to maintain consistent access to safety net care for underserved populations, including those disproportionately impacted by COVID‐19. Primary Funding Source: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Objective: The Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded coverage for young adults by allowing them to remain dependents on their parents' plans until age 26 (in 2010) and expanding Medicaid to childless adults with incomes <138% of the federal poverty level (FPL) (in 2014). However, even post‐ACA, uninsured rates by age group were highest among young adults. In 2014, Massachusetts also expanded Medicaid eligibility for children to 19‐20‐year‐olds with incomes up to 150% FPL, which could reduce potential gaps in coverage for those who would otherwise age out of eligibility for Medicaid as children after age 18. We used the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database to examine changes in coverage for Medicaid enrollees who turned 19 years old before and after the policy change. Study Design: We used data from the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database (MA‐APCD) from 2012–2016 to examine two cohorts: Medicaid enrollees age 18 as of January 2012 and as of January 2014, who turned 19 years old prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion (pre‐ and post‐expansion cohorts, respectively). Monthly coverage changes for each cohort were examined for 2 years until they turned 21 years old (2012–2014 or 2014–2016). We classified months without insurance enrollment records as uninsured. We used logistic regression models to compare the likelihood of being uninsured for 3 or more months at age 19–20 and 20–21 for the pre‐ vs. post‐expansion cohorts, adjusting for gender, diagnoses of asthma, autism, obesity, mental illness, and intellectual and development disabilities, and ZIP code socioeconomic status (SES). Population Studied: Medicaid enrollees age 18 in January 2012 (N = 32,832) and January 2014 (N = 31,894) in the MA‐APCD. Principal Findings: In both cohorts, 49% were female and 29% lived in low SES ZIP codes; those who turned 19 prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were less likely to have a baseline diagnosis of asthma (12.1% vs. 12.9%, p < 0.05), obesity (7.6% vs. 8.7%, p < 0.05), and mental illness (17.4% vs. 18.8%, p < 0.05). Enrollees who turned 19 prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were more likely to have ≥3 months of commercial insurance at age 19–20 (8.5% vs. 3.6%; OR = 1.85, 95% CI 1.7, 2.0) and ≥ 3 months without insurance (17.0% vs. 1.2%; OR = 20.3, 95% CI 17.4, 23.6). Differences persisted at age 20–21, although both cohorts had access to Medicaid expansion for low‐income adults in these years (7.6% vs. 4.9%, OR = 1.4, 95% CI 1.3,1.6 for ≥3 months of commercial insurance; 11.5% vs. 0.9%, OR = 16.4, 95% CI 13.7, 19.5 for ≥3 months without insurance). Conclusions: Disruptions in insurance coverage for young adults aging out of Medicaid were substantially reduced in Massachusetts after the state expanded Medicaid for children to cover 19–20‐year‐olds and expanded coverage for low‐income adults. Commercial insurance coverage was also less likely for young adults after Medicaid expansion. Medicaid enrollees that entered adulthood prior to vs. after Medicaid expansion were more likely to be uninsured in years after Medicaid expansion. Implications for Policy or Practice: Expanding Medicaid eligibility for children to those ages 19–20 could substantially reduce the risk of becoming uninsured for low‐income children entering young adulthood. Primary Funding Source: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses national survey data to assess the prevalence and health-related correlates of housing problems among community health center patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Sexual orientation and gender identity data collection is necessary to address health inequities. This study examines sexual orientation and gender identity data reporting among community health centers.Methods: Using the 2016-2019 Uniform Data System for 1,381 community health centers, trends in reporting of sexual orientation and gender identity data were examined. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess associations between community health center characteristics and whether sexual orientation and gender identity data were available for ≥75% of a community health center's patients in 2019. Data were analyzed in 2021.Results: In 2016-2019, the percentage of community health centers with sexual orientation and gender identity data for ≥75% of patients increased from 14.9% to 53.0%. In 2019, community health centers were more likely to have this data for ≥75% of patients if they were in nonmetro counties (OR=1.48, 95% CI=1.04, 2.10 versus metro), were in the South (OR=2.27, 95% CI=1.57, 3.31) or West (OR=1.91, 95% CI=1.27, 2.88 versus the Northeast), and had more patients aged between 18 and 39 years (OR=1.04, 95% CI=1.02, 1.07), between 40 and 64 years (OR=1.04, 95% CI=1.02, 1.06 vs <18 years), or veterans (OR=1.10, 95% CI=1.01, 1.20). This was less likely among community health centers serving 10,000-20,000 patients (OR=0.70, 95% CI=0.52, 0.95) and >20,000 patients (OR=0.44, 95% CI=0.32, 0.61 vs <10,000) and community health centers with more patients of American Indian/Alaskan Native (OR=0.98, 95% CI=0.97, 0.99) or unknown race (OR=0.92, 95% CI=0.86, 0.97 versus White).Conclusions: Collection of sexual orientation and gender identity data by community health centers has increased substantially since 2016, although gaps remain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Affordable Care Act (ACA) increased funding for Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs). We defined FQHC service areas based on patient use and examined the characteristics of areas that gained FQHC access post-ACA.Methods: We defined FQHC service areas using total patient counts by ZIP code from the Uniform Data System (UDS) and compared this approach with existing methods. We then compared the characteristics of ZIP codes included in Medically Underserved Areas/Populations (MUA/Ps) that gained access vs. MUA/P ZIP codes that did not gain access to FQHCs between 2011-15.Results: FQHC service areas based on UDS data vs. Primary Care Service Areas or counties included a higher percentage of each FQHC's patients (86% vs. 49% and 71%) and ZIP codes with greater use of FQHCs among low-income residents (29% vs. 22% and 22%), on average. MUA/Ps that gained FQHC access 2011-2015 included more poor, uninsured, publicly insured, and foreign-born residents than underserved areas that did not gain access, but were less likely to be rural (p < .05).Conclusions: Measures of actual patient use provide a promising method of assessing FQHC service areas and access. Post-ACA funding, the FQHC program expanded access into areas that were more likely to have higher rates of poverty and uninsurance, which could help address disparities in access to care. Rural areas were less likely to gain access to FQHCs, underscoring the persistent challenges of providing care in these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumer-directed health plans are plans with high deductibles that typically require patients to bear no out-of-pocket costs for preventive care, such as annual physicals or screening tests, in order to ease financial barriers and encourage patients to seek such care. We surveyed people in California who had a consumer-directed health plan and found that fewer than one in five understood that their plan exempted preventive office visits, medical tests, and screenings from their deductible, meaning that this care was free or had a modest copayment. Roughly one in five said that they had delayed or avoided a preventive office visit, test, or screening because of cost. Those who were confused about the exemption were significantly more likely to report avoiding preventive visits because of cost concerns. Special efforts to educate consumers about preventive care cost-sharing exemptions may be necessary as more health plans, including Medicare, adopt this model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To help preserve continuity of health insurance coverage during the recent recession, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided a 65 percent Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act ( COBRA) premium subsidy for workers laid off in 2008-2010. We examined COBRA enrollment levels with the subsidy and the health, access, and financial consequences of enrollment decisions. Study Design/Data Collection Telephone interviews linked with health system databases for 561 respondents who were laid off in 2009 and eligible for the COBRA subsidy (80 percent response rate). Principal Findings Overall, 38 percent reported enrolling in COBRA and 54 percent reported having some gaps in insurance coverage since being laid off. After adjustments, we found that those who had higher cost-sharing, who had higher incomes, were older, or were sicker were more likely to enroll in COBRA. COBRA enrollees less frequently reported access problems or that their health suffered because of poor access, but they reported greater financial stress due to health care spending. Conclusion Despite the substantial subsidy, a majority of eligible individuals did not enroll in COBRA, and many reported insurance coverage gaps. Nonenrollees reported more access problems and that their health worsened. Without a mandate, subsidies may need to be widely publicized and larger to encourage health insurance enrollment among individuals who suffer a negative income shock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The viability and stability of the Medicare Part D prescription drug program depend on accurate risk-adjusted payments. The current approach, prescription drug hierarchical condition categories (RxHCCs), uses diagnosis and demographic information to predict future drug costs. We evaluated the performance of multiple approaches for predicting 2006 Part D drug costs and plan liability. RxHCCs explain 12 percent of the variation in actual drug costs, overpredict costs for beneficiaries with low actual costs, and underpredict costs for beneficiaries with high actual costs. Combining RxHCCs with individual-level information on prior-year drug use greatly improves performance and decreases incentives for plans to select against bad risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adults with mental illnesses are more likely to have low income and diet-related chronic diseases. This study examined associations of mental illness diagnosis status with food insecurity and diet quality and whether the relationship between food security status and diet quality differed by mental illness diagnosis status in adult Medicaid beneficiaries. This was a secondary cross-sectional analysis of baseline (2019–2020) data collected as part of the LiveWell study, a longitudinal study evaluating a Medicaid food and housing program. Participants were 846 adult Medicaid beneficiaries from an eastern Massachusetts health system. Food security was measured with the 10-item US Adult Food Security survey module (0 = high food security, 1–2 = marginal food security, 3–10 = low/very low food security). Mental illness diagnoses included health record–documented anxiety, depression, or serious mental illness (eg, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder). Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015) scores were calculated from 24-hour dietary recalls. Multivariable regression analyses adjusted for demographics, income, and survey date. Participants' mean (standard deviation) age was 43.1 (11.3) years, and 75% were female, 54% Hispanic, 33% non-Hispanic White, and 9% non-Hispanic Black. Fewer than half (43%) of participants reported high food security, with almost one third (32%) reporting low or very low food security. The 341 (40%) participants with one or more mental illness diagnosis had greater odds of low/very low food security (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.94; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.38–2.70) and had similar mean HEI-2015 scores (53.1 vs 56.0; P = 0.12) compared with participants with no mental illness diagnosis. Mean adjusted HEI-2015 scores did not significantly differ by high vs low/very low food security for those without a mental illness diagnosis (57.9 vs 54.9; P = 0.052) or those with a mental illness diagnosis (53.0 vs 52.9; P = 0.99). In a cohort of adults with Medicaid, those with mental illness diagnoses had higher odds of experiencing food insecurity. Overall, diet quality among adults in this sample was low but did not differ by mental illness diagnosis or food security status. These results highlight the importance of augmenting efforts to improve both food security and diet quality among all Medicaid participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Importance: Federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) receive federal funding to serve medically underserved areas and provide a range of services including comprehensive primary care, enabling services, and behavioral health care. Greater funding for FQHCs could increase the local availability of clinic-based care and help reduce more costly resource use, such as emergency department visits (ED). Objective: To examine the impact of funding increases for FQHCs after the ACA on the use of FQHCs and EDs. Methods: Retrospective study using the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database (APCD) 2010–2013 that included APCD enrollees in 559 Massachusetts ZIP codes (N = 6,173,563 in 2010). We calculated shift-share predictions of changes in FQHC funding at the ZIP code-level for FQHCs that received Community Health Center funds in any year, 2010–13 (N = 31). Outcomes were the number of ZIP code enrollees with visits to FQHCs and EDs, overall and for emergent and non-emergent diagnoses. Results: In 2010, 4% of study subjects visited a FQHC, and they were more likely to be younger, have Medicaid, and live in low-income areas. We found that a standard deviation increase in prior year FQHC funding (+31 percentage point (pp)) at the ZIP code level was associated with a 2.3pp (95% CI 0.7pp to 3.8pp) increase in enrollees with FQHC visits and a 1.3pp (95% CI -2.3pp to -0.3pp) decrease in enrollees with non-emergent ED visits, but no significant change in emergent ED visits (0.3pp, 95% CI -0.8pp to 1.4pp). Conclusions: We found that areas exposed to greater FQHC funding increases had more growth in the number of enrollees seen by FQHCs and greater reductions in ED visits for non-emergent conditions. Investment in FQHCs could be a promising approach to increase access to care for underserved populations and reduce costly ED visits, especially for primary care treatable or non-emergent conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bipolar disorder is a heritable disorder, and we aimed to assess the impact of family history of mental disorders in first-degree relatives on the severity and course of bipolar disorder.Methods: The Bipolar CHOICE (lithium versus quetiapine) and LiTMUS (optimized treatment with versus without lithium) comparative effectiveness studies were similar trials among bipolar disorder outpatients studying four different randomized treatment arms for 24 weeks. Patients self-reported on six severe mental disorders among first-degree relatives. We performed ANOVA and linear regression regarding disease severity measures, sociodemographic and cardiometabolic markers and mixed effects linear regression to evaluate treatment response.Results: Among 757 patients, 644 (85.1%) reported at least one first-degree relative with a severe mental disorder (mean=2.8; standard deviation=2.2; range=0-13). Depression (67.1%), alcohol abuse (51.0%) and bipolar disorder (47.0%) were the most frequently reported disorders. Familial psychiatric history correlated with several disease severity measures (hospitalizations, suicide attempts, and earlier onset) and sociodemographic markers (lower education and household income) but not with cardiometabolic markers (e.g. cholesterol or waist circumference) or cardiovascular risk scores, e.g. the Framingham risk score. Patients with familial psychiatric history tended to require more psychopharmacological treatment (p=0.054) but responded similarly (all p>0.1) to all four treatment arms.Conclusions: Our findings indicate that familial psychiatric history is common among outpatients with bipolar disorder and correlates with disease severity and sociodemographic measures. Patients with a greater familial psychiatric load required more intense treatment but achieved similar treatment responses compared to patients without familial psychiatric history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before the implementation of cost-sharing parity in Medicare, beneficiaries faced higher cost sharing for mental health services than for other medical services. The Medicare Improvements for Patients and Providers Act of 2008 phased in cost-sharing reductions in Medicare for outpatient mental health services in the period 2010-14. Using data for 2006-15 from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey and difference-indifferences analyses, we assessed whether this reduction in mental health cost sharing was associated with changes in specialty and primary care outpatient mental health visits and psychotropic medication fills. We compared people with Medicare and with private insurance before and after parity implementation. Medicare beneficiaries' use of psychotropic medication increased after the implementation of cost-sharing parity, but we did not detect a change in visits. Changes in the use of psychotropic medications were greater among people with probable serious mental illness and among Medicare beneficiaries who did not report having supplemental coverage. The increased medication use could signal improvements in mental health care access among Medicare beneficiaries, especially among the subgroups most likely to benefit from the policy change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: US adults with serious mental illness (SMI), compared to those without SMI, have a higher prevalence of smoking, which contributes to a shorter life expectancy. This study compared current smoking and quitting-related characteristics of low-income US adults with and without SMI who received healthcare at federally funded health centers.Methods: Using cross-sectional data from adults ≥ 18 years old in the nationally representative 2014 Health Center Patient Survey (n = 5592), we compared the prevalence of ever and current smoking among adults with and without SMI and calculated quit ratios as the percentage of ever smokers who have quit smoking. We examined the association between SMI and receiving advice to quit, making quit attempts, and having plans to quit in the next 30 days using multivariable logistic regression.Results: A total of 1376 (23%) of participants had SMI. Ever smoking prevalence was 68% in adults with SMI and 41% in adults without SMI, and current smoking prevalence was 48% and 22%, respectively. The quit ratio was 30% and 46% among participants with and without SMI, respectively. Compared to smokers without SMI, more smokers with SMI reported receiving advice to quit in the past 12 months (aOR 2.47, 95% CI 1.20-5.07). Smokers with and without SMI did not differ significantly in their odds of having made a past-12-month quit attempt or plans to quit.Conclusions: Smokers with SMI seen in federally funded health centers were just as likely to have made a quit attempt and to have plans to quit as smokers without SMI. Despite a higher likelihood of receiving clinician advice to quit, the lower quit ratio in this population suggests that advice alone is unlikely to be sufficient. These results underscore the need for augmented strategies to promote smoking cessation and reduce the excess burden of tobacco-related disease in patients with SMI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To study the impact of eliminating cost sharing for screening mammography on mammography rates in a large Medicare Advantage (MA) health plan which in 2010 eliminated cost sharing in anticipation of the Affordable Care Act mandate.Study Setting: Large MA health maintenance organization offering individual-subscriber MA insurance and employer-supplemented group MA insurance.Study Design: We investigated the impact on breast cancer screening of a policy that eliminated a $20 copayment for screening mammography in 2010 among 53,188 women continuously enrolled from 2007 to 2012 in an individual-subscriber MA plan, compared with 42,473 women with employer-supplemented group MA insurance in the same health maintenance organization who had full screening coverage during this period. We used differences-in-differences analysis to study the impact of cost-sharing elimination on mammography rates.Principal Findings: Annual screening rates declined over time for both groups, with similar trends pre-2010 and a slower decline after 2010 among women whose copayments were eliminated. Among women aged 65-74 years in the individual-subscriber MA plan, 44.9 percent received screening in 2009 compared with 40.9 percent in 2012, while 49.5 percent of women in the employer-supplemented MA plan received screening in 2009 compared with 44.1 percent in 2012, that is, a difference-in-difference effect of 1.4 percentage points less decline in screening among women experiencing the cost-sharing elimination. Effects were concentrated among women without recent screening. There were no differences by neighborhood socioeconomic status or race/ethnicity.Conclusions: Eliminating cost sharing for screening mammography was associated with modesty lower decline in screening rates among women with previously low screening adherence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Standard Medicare Part D prescription drug benefits include substantial and complex cost-sharing. Many beneficiaries also have functional limitations that could affect self-care capabilities, including managing medications, but also have varying levels of social support to help with these activities. We examined the associations between drug cost responses, functional limitations, and social support. Data Sources and Study Setting: We conducted telephone interviews in a stratified random sample of community-dwelling Medicare Advantage beneficiaries (N = 1,201, response rate = 70.0%). Participants reported their functional status (i.e., difficulty with activities of daily living) and social support (i.e., receiving help with medications). Drug cost responses included cost-reducing behaviors, cost-related non-adherence, and financial stress. Study Design: We used multivariate logistic regression to assess associations among functional status, help with medications, and drug cost responses, adjusting for patient characteristics. Principal Findings: Respondents with multiple limitations who did not receive help with their medications were more likely to report cost-related non-adherence (OR = 3.2, 95% CI: 1.2–8.5) and financial stress (OR = 2.4, 95% CI: 1.3–4.5) compared to subjects with fewer limitations and no help; however, those with multiple limitations and with medication help had similar odds of unfavorable cost responses as those with fewer limitations. Conclusion: The majority of beneficiaries with functional limitations did not receive help with medications. Support with medication management for beneficiaries who have functional limitations could improve adherence and outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandated a label change for leukotriene inhibitors (LTIs) to include neuropsychiatric adverse events (eg, depression and suicidality) as a precaution. This study investigated how this label change affected the use of LTIs and other asthma controller medications, mental health visits, and suicide attempts. Methods: We analyzed data (2005-2010) from 5 large health plans in the US Population-Based Effectiveness in Asthma and Lung Diseases (PEAL) Network. The study cohort included children and adolescents (n = 30,000), young adults (n = 20,0), and adults (n = 90,000) with asthma. We used interrupted time series to examine changes in rates of LTI dispensings, non-LTI dispensings, mental health visits, and suicide attempts (using a validated algorithm based on a combination of diagnoses of injury or poisoning and psychiatric conditions). Findings: The label change was associated with abrupt reductions in LTI use among all age groups (relative reductions of 8.3%, 15.1%, and 6.0% among adolescents, young adults, and adults, respectively, compared with expected rates at 1 year after the warnings). Although we detected immediate offset increases in non-LTI asthma medication use, these increases were not sustained among adolescents and young adults. There were small increases in mental health visits among LTI users. Implications: The FDA label change for LTIs communicated possible risk of neuropsychiatric events. Communication and enhanced awareness may have increased reporting of mental health symptoms among young adults and adults. It is important to assess intended and unintended consequences of FDA warnings and label changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little is known about drug cost communications of Medicare Part D beneficiaries with chronic conditions such as diabetes. The purpose of this study is to assess Medicare Part D beneficiaries with diabetes' levels of communication with physicians regarding prescription drug costs; the perceived importance of these communications; levels of prescription drug switching due to cost; and self-reported cost-related medication non-adherence. Methods: Data were obtained from a cross-sectional survey (58% response rate) of 1,458 Medicare beneficiaries with diabetes who entered the coverage gap in 2006; adjusted percentages of patients with communication issues were obtained from multivariate regression analyses adjusting for patient demographics and clinical characteristics. Results: Fewer than half of patients reported discussing the cost of medications with their physicians, while over 75% reported that such communications were important. Forty-eight percent reported their physician had switched to a less expensive medication due to costs. Minorities, females, and older adults had significantly lower levels of communication with their physicians regarding drug costs than white, male, and younger patients respectively. Patients with < $25 K annual household income were more likely than higher income patients to have talked about prescription drug costs with doctors, and to report cost-related non-adherence (27% vs. 17%, p < .001). Conclusions: Medicare Part D beneficiaries with diabetes who entered the coverage gap have low levels of communication with physicians about drug costs, despite the high perceived importance of such communication. Understanding patient and plan-level characteristics differences in communication and use of cost-cutting strategies can inform interventions to help patients manage prescription drug costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study which genotyped parasites from fecal specimens of sporadic cyptosporidiosis cases in British Columbia from 1995 to 1999. Cryptosporidiosis cases and community information; DNA sequencing and analyses; Details on the restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses of polymerase chain reaction products.

Background: The Affordable Care Act expanded Medicaid and increased federal funding for Community Health Centers (CHCs). To examine the role of Medicaid coverage on care patterns for those with available safety net care, we assessed differences in access to care for CHC patients with continuous Medicaid coverage vs. gaps in insurance coverage in the last year.Methods: We used data on adult respondents from the 2014 Health Center Patient Survey (N = 1720) with continuous Medicaid coverage vs. those with some period without insurance coverage in the last 12 months. We examined reported need for any medical care, mental health care, prescription drugs, dental care, and referrals for care outside of the CHC in the last 12 months, and reports of being delayed or unable to get needed care by insurance status. We used logistic regression to assess the association between insurance status and care access, adjusting for patient characteristics.Results: Patients with insurance gaps and continuous Medicaid coverage reported similar levels of need for most types of care in the last 12 months, but those with insurance gaps were significantly more likely to report having difficulty obtaining medical care, prescription drugs, dental care, and completing outside referrals. Of those with incomplete referrals for care outside of the CHC, patients with insurance gaps were more likely than those with continuous Medicaid to cite cost or insurance-related reasons for not following up (70% vs. 19%, p < 0.01).Conclusions: Having continuous Medicaid coverage appeared to mitigate barriers to care for CHC patients compared to having intermittent or no insurance coverage over the last year. Policies that increase disruptions in Medicaid coverage could adversely impact access to care, even among those with available safety net care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little is known about drug cost communications of Medicare Part D beneficiaries with chronic conditions such as diabetes. The purpose of this study is to assess Medicare Part D beneficiaries with diabetes' levels of communication with physicians regarding prescription drug costs; the perceived importance of these communications; levels of prescription drug switching due to cost; and self-reported cost-related medication non-adherence.Methods: Data were obtained from a cross-sectional survey (58% response rate) of 1,458 Medicare beneficiaries with diabetes who entered the coverage gap in 2006; adjusted percentages of patients with communication issues were obtained from multivariate regression analyses adjusting for patient demographics and clinical characteristics.Results: Fewer than half of patients reported discussing the cost of medications with their physicians, while over 75% reported that such communications were important. Forty-eight percent reported their physician had switched to a less expensive medication due to costs. Minorities, females, and older adults had significantly lower levels of communication with their physicians regarding drug costs than white, male, and younger patients respectively. Patients with < $25 K annual household income were more likely than higher income patients to have talked about prescription drug costs with doctors, and to report cost-related non-adherence (27% vs. 17%, p < .001).Conclusions: Medicare Part D beneficiaries with diabetes who entered the coverage gap have low levels of communication with physicians about drug costs, despite the high perceived importance of such communication. Understanding patient and plan-level characteristics differences in communication and use of cost-cutting strategies can inform interventions to help patients manage prescription drug costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patients face increasing insurance restrictions on prescription drugs, including generic-only coverage. There are no generic inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), which are a mainstay of asthma therapy, and patients pay the full price for these drugs under generic-only policies. We examined changes in ICS use following the introduction of generic-only coverage in a Medicare Advantage population from 2003-2004.Methods: Subjects were age 65+, with asthma, prior ICS use, and no chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (n = 1,802). In 2004, 74.0% switched from having a $30 brand-copayment plan to a generic-only coverage plan (restricted coverage); 26% had $15-25 brand copayments in 2003-2004 (unrestricted coverage). Using linear difference-in-difference models, we examined annual changes in ICS use (measured by days-of-supply dispensed). There was a lower-cost ICS available within the study setting and we also examined changes in drug choice (higher- vs. lower-cost ICS). In multivariable models we adjusted for socio-demographic, clinical, and asthma characteristics.Results: In 2003 subjects had an average of 188 days of ICS supply. Restricted compared with unrestricted coverage was associated with reductions in ICS use from 2003-2004 (-15.5 days-of-supply, 95% confidence interval (CI): -25.0 to -6.0). Among patients using higher-cost ICS drugs in 2003 (n = 662), more restricted versus unrestricted coverage subjects switched to the lower-cost ICS in 2004 (39.8% vs. 10.3%). Restricted coverage was not associated with decreased ICS use (2003-2004) among patients who switched to the lower-cost ICS (18.7 days-of-supply, CI: -27.5 to 65.0), but was among patients who did not switch (-38.6 days-of-supply, CI: -57.0 to -20.3). In addition, restricted coverage was associated with decreases in ICS use among patients with both higher- and lower-risk asthma (-15.0 days-of-supply, CI: -41.4 to 11.44; and -15.6 days-of-supply, CI: -25.8 to -5.3, respectively).Conclusion: In this elderly population, patients reduced their already low ICS use in response to losing drug coverage. Switching to the lower-cost ICS mitigated reductions in use among patients who previously used higher-cost drugs. Additional work is needed to assess barriers to switching ICS drugs and the clinical effects of these drug use changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little information exists about the consequences of limits on prescription-drug benefits for Medicare beneficiaries. Methods: We compared the clinical and economic outcomes in 2003 among 157,275 Medicare+Choice beneficiaries whose annual drug benefits were capped at $1,000 and 41,904 beneficiaries whose drug benefits were unlimited because of employer supplements. Results: After adjusting for individual characteristics, we found that subjects whose benefits were capped had pharmacy costs for drugs applicable to the cap that were lower by 31 percent than subjects whose benefits were not capped (95 percent confidence interval, 29 to 33 percent) but had total medical costs that were only 1 percent lower (95 percent confidence interval, −4 to 6 percent). Subjects whose benefits were capped had higher relative rates of visits to the emergency department (relative rate, 1.09 [95 percent confidence interval, 1.04 to 1.14]), nonelective hospitalizations (relative rate, 1.13 [1.05 to 1.21]), and death (relative rate, 1.22 [1.07 to 1.38]; difference, 0.68 per 100 person-years [0.30 to 1.07]). Among subjects who used drugs for hypertension, hyperlipidemia, or diabetes in 2002, those whose benefits were capped were more likely to be nonadherent to long-term drug therapy in 2003; the respective odds ratios were 1.30 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.23 to 1.38), 1.27 (1.19 to 1.34), and 1.33 (1.18 to 1.48) for subjects using drugs for hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes. In each subgroup, the physiological outcomes were worse for subjects whose drug benefits were capped than for those whose benefits were not capped; the odds ratios were 1.05 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.00 to 1.09), 1.13 (1.03 to 1.25), and 1.23 (1.03 to 1.46), respectively, for subjects with a systolic blood pressure of 140 mm Hg or more, a serum low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol level of 130 mg per deciliter or more, and a glycated hemoglobin level of 8 percent or more. Conclusions: A cap on drug benefits was associated with lower drug consumption and unfavorable clinical outcomes. In patients with chronic disease, the cap was associated with poorer adherence to drug therapy and poorer control of blood pressure, lipid levels, and glucose levels. The savings in drug costs from the cap were offset by increases in the costs of hospitalization and emergency department care. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2349-59. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]