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This article puts Alexander Jabbari's The Making of Persianate Modernity in conversation with Levi Thompson's Reorienting Modernism in Arabic and Persian Poetry to explore the relationship between literary modernism and literary modernity in non-Western literary contexts. It highlights the authors' parallel theoretical engagements of Michel Foucault's "attitude of modernity" and modernists' and modernizers' reworkings of literary heritage through the sublation of premodern literary content and form into modern conceptions of literary history. Drawing on these parallels, the article reviews several points of convergence in contemporary Arabic literary historical analysis that limn Jabbari's approach to the Persianate world, which crosses between Persian and Urdu, the naskh and nastaʿlīq scripts, and Iran and India. It seeks out connections in the work and thought of Jabbari's interlocutors, such as Muḥammad-Taqī Bahār and N. M. Rashed; Iranian modernist poets Nīmā Yūshīj, Aḥmad Shāmlū, and Furūgh Farrukhzād; and the Arab "free verse" (shiʿr ḥurr) poets such as ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Bayātī and Badr Shākir al-Sayyāb. The article highlights how Jabbari's book proves that literary historians in the Persianate world were subject to modernization discourse in making themselves modern and therefore covered up aspects of their premodern heritage that did not fit their modernizing projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper delineates the socio-historical imagination underpinning the works of Miraji, one of the pioneers of Urdu poetic modernism. It argues that the 'modernism' attributed to Miraji's poetry is best understood as the culmination of, as well as a veritable departure from, a specific diachronic movement internal to the history of modern Urdu literature. Presenting the idea of 'naturalness' as one of the principal catalysts of this internal movement, this paper demonstrates how Miraji attempted to reorient the trajectory of modern Urdu poetry by adopting an equivocal poetic language, which challenged the moral, social, and political imports of this politico-aesthetic discourse of 'naturalness'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article explores the free-verse poetics of Artur Alliksaar (1923–1966), Estonia’s foremost poet of language. Alliksaar faced poverty and repression under the Soviet regime, making it challenging to publish his work. A small selection of his poems were published as a book only posthumously. Nonetheless, Alliksaar’s influence on the poetry revival of the 1960s and the emerging generation of poets was profound. Estonian poetry and the language itself have been forever altered by his volcanic inspiration. In the late 1950s, Estonia witnessed a fierce debate over free verse: while the official stance favoured conservative metrical forms, the younger generation championed formal and substantive freedom. Alliksaar initially wrote in elegant metrical forms like sonnets and rhymed quatrains, but by 1960, he too embraced free verse. The article suggests that he drew inspiration from Walt Whitman’s prose-like long lines, which he meticulously instrumented and enriched with figurative devices, resulting in an unprecedented, baroque orchestration. Alliksaar held deep reverence for the poetics of Estonian runic verse and consistently employed alliteration and open parallelism in his compelling associative compositions. His impressive arsenal includes all manners of figurative devices drawn from folklore and baroque rhetoric: sound devices, tropes, and figures – often used hyperbolically and comically. Unprecedented in Estonian poetry is the flood of linguistic wizardry: diverse repetitions, extended metaphors and metalepses, cata­chrestic contrasts and systematic antitheses, paradoxical puns, echoes and chiasms, refined vocabulary and ad hoc neologisms, rhetorical syntax, and graphic articulation. It could be argued that Alliksaar’s volcanic alliterative innovation finds its archetype in the free-verse-like primal structure of proto-accentual chants and lamentations that preceded quantitative runic verse.

The article explores the freeverse poetics of Artur Alliksaar (1923-1966), Estonia's foremost poet of language. Alliksaar faced poverty and repression under the Soviet regime, making it challenging to publish his work. A small selection of his poems were published as a book only posthumously. Nonetheless, Alliksaar's influence on the poetry revival of the 1960s and the emerging generation of poets was profound. Estonian poetry and the language itself have been forever altered by his volcanic inspiration. In the late 1950s, Estonia witnessed a fierce debate over free verse: while the official stance favoured conservative metrical forms, the younger generation championed formal and substantive freedom. Alliksaar initially wrote in elegant metrical forms like sonnets and rhymed quatrains, but by 1960, he too embraced free verse. The article suggests that he drew inspiration from Walt Whitman's proselike long lines, which he meticulously instrumented and enriched with figurative devices, resulting in an unprecedented, baroque orchestration. Alliksaar held deep reverence for the poetics of Estonian runic verse and consistently employed alliteration and open parallelism in his compelling associative compositions. His impressive arsenal includes all manners of figurative devices drawn from folklore and baroque rhetoric: sound devices, tropes, and figures -- often used hyperbolically and comically. Unprecedented in Estonian poetry is the flood of linguistic wizardry: diverse repetitions, extended metaphors and metalepses, catachrestic contrasts and systematic antitheses, paradoxical puns, echoes and chiasms, refined vocabulary and ad hoc neologisms, rhetorical syntax, and graphic articulation. It could be argued that Alliksaar's volcanic alliterative innovation finds its archetype in the freeverselike primal structure of protoaccentual chants and lamentations that preceded quantitative runic verse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an overview of free verse and how it emerged and evolved in Arabic literature and examines the differences between free verse and standard poetry. It presents language analysis of using free verse in Arabic literature and discusses the reasons behind free verse adoption. The researcher analyzed pieces of free verse to study the reasons behind using it instead of standard poetry. The analysis includes pieces of free verse to understand the meaning of the texts and its different layers. Not like standard poetry, regular rhythm or meter is not required in free verse. The movement of using free verse started by simplifying poetry rules by producing poems with a single foot or simple meter and rhyme. The analysis shows that poets used free verse because it gives them more freedom to express their thoughts, to use their personal style of musical rhythms, to use different rhythms and meters that go with their emotions and themes and to best express their poetic experiences. It also shows that free verse enables poets to use descriptive language, metaphors, historical depths elements, signs of cultural effects, new meanings without chains and to adopt words repetition as a rhetorical device meaningfully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the article, the stages of development of Azerbaijani poetry from the 19th century to the 20th-21st centuries, which were accompanied by fundamental changes, were reviewed. It has been noted that the wars that took place at the beginning of the 20th century and the strict rules and regulations applied by the Soviet regime had an undeniable influence on our literature. It was at that time, during the years of Repression, prominent representatives of Azerbaijani poetry were subjected to political oppression and persecution, exiled and shot. The names of the poets who played a special role in the development of Azerbaijani poetic thought during the Soviet period were mentioned, and at the same time, the genre and form innovations they brought to our poetry were shown. Starting from the 60s, poets and writers began to deepen their view of man and his spiritual world. This movement, which began in literature for the sake of freedom of speech and thought, political thought, pluralism, national independence, and social justice, was continued in the 70s and 90s, and finally achieved its prospective goals with the acquisition of political sovereignty and state independence of Azerbaijan. The trend of critical realism that prevailed in Azerbaijani poetry in the 19th century was replaced by socialism-realism in the 20th century. The names of the leading representatives of this current have been mentioned. The article compares the similarities and differences of both French and Azerbaijani poetry of the 20th century in terms of literary trends, form, content, and genre, citing the names of poets and showing examples. In particular, the poems of the French surrealist poet Jacques Préver are compared to the poems of Rasul Rza and Huseyn Javid and Adil Mirseyid. The article also examines the form and content of the newest poets distinguished by their innovation in 21st century Azerbaijani poetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rauf Parfi is one of the important poets who left his mark on Contemporary Uzbek literature from the 1960s until his death. The poems that Parfi wrote are works that embrace the whole Turkic world, express their troubles, are their voices, and also make a mark on history. Therefore, Parfi is an important figure among the most important poets of the Turkic world. The poet’s interest in the Crimean people begins with his father’s friend Abdulla Ağa, from whom he received his first education in his childhood, and continued increasingly. Because of this interest, his works on Crimea and Crimean Turks, his circle called him "Crimean Tatar Poet". A poet with a high consciousness of Turkicness and love for humanity; he wrote many poems expressing the injustice suffering of the Crimean people and the troubles they experienced. In fact, some of these poems, which constitute a series of poems, were published in different books; only some of them were added as chapters to some poems, and some remained only in the notes of the poet. In this study, firstly the private notes of Rauf Parfi’s poem series " Kırım Hayalleri ", which has not been fully published and collected until today were searched. Then the published books, the writings of his friends on this subject and their memories were investigated in depth, thus the series was completed. While these were being done, the poet’s writings on this subject were given as an example from time to time and some comments were made on the poem. The series in question was written in 1964-1965. The poems in the series are about the bitter fate of the Crimean Turks who were exiled from their homeland in masses and had to live in foreign countries, and the national independence movements on their way back to their homeland. In the article, the poems in the “Kırım Hayalleri" were examined in detail.

Copyright of Journal of Analytic Divinity is the property of Analytic Divinity Center and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Hudební Výchova is the property of Charles University Prague, Faculty of Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article is based on the hypothesis that contemporary poetry performs the function of a mediator within a fragmented society. The poetic text, in addition to its existence in a book format, is realized in a variety of media contexts, interacting with different types of art, as well as penetrating both public and personal communication. At the same time, the poetic form can change itself, losing the customary formal features, but retaining the generic (lyrical) essence. The processes of “other existence” of a poetic text are heterogeneous and large-scale; in this article the thesis about the medial function of contemporary poetry is illustrated on the material of one specially chosen text – the poem “In Nice” by E. Simonova. Simonova’s free verses from the book “Her Two Only Dresses” (2020) fit not only into women’s poetry, but also into the so-called “docupoetry”. At the same time, Simonova’s poetry is distinguished by the desire to overcome antagonisms and unite the seemingly incompatible. The example of the poem “In Nice” proves the significance for Simonova of the classical poetic tradition, which, however, is subject to inversion. On the composition level, Pushkin’s elegy “When I wander outside the city thoughtfully ...” is used as a pretext. The name of Georgy Adamovich framing the text actualizes the acmeist tradition and the memory of the poetry of the “Parisian note”, with the key themes of death, exile, and Russia. At the same time, the tradition is refracted paradoxically in Simonova’s text: self-irony is dissonant with the elegiac modus, the sacred (Easter) becomes mundane, the dead are perceived as alive, and the poetic word becomes a guarantee of eternal life. But with all the paradoxes and inversions, Simonova’s poem expresses a harmonious image of the world and the poet. Simonova’s creative work demonstrates a special socio-cultural function of contemporary poetry: to act as a mediator between culture and everyday life, classics and “post-poetry”, spoken word and book tradition, verse and prose, and poet and reader. Performing a communicative function, the poet, however, does not completely merge with any of the socio-cultural “loci”, revealing the features of tricksterism and, at the same time, internal disharmony. The harmony of paradoxes does not lead to the static

The article proposes a textual and linguistic analysis of Il Mondo salvato dai ragazzini e altri poemi by Elsa Morante (Einaudi 1968): textual structure, sectoral languages, foreign words, dialectal words, great abundance of names and toponyms make a poetic work which is related to the plurality of languages and styles of the Divina Commedia. The interpretation of the text presents remarks that are very close to remarks present in contemporary Morantian essays (Pro o contro la bomba atomica, Sul romanzo, Il Beato propagandista del Paradiso).

The study presents an experiment aimed at discovering similarities and differences in how American and Ukrainian participants perceived contemporary free verse. Three poems were examined from the perspectives of intertextual/infratextual/intratextual context dimensions. The presence of intertextual characteristics – reflecting social reality and metaphoric content – was recognized by the majority in both groups of participants, yet across the groups, there were differences in the degree of value placed on each characteristic. Differences in views on the infratextual contexts reflect the variability of functions performed by the initial/intermediate/closing parts of the poems. As regards intratextual context dimension, there were significant similarities in the participants’ views on the imagery, in the constructed text-worlds, emotional responses, interpretations, and encountered difficulties. The analysis of the intratextual contexts of the poems indicates that some texts may drive readers’ interpretations, thus reducing the role of culture in their reception.

The article presents the author's views on American poet Gwendolyn Brooks and her depiction of urban poverty, radical support of African American arts, and her role as a kind of progenitor of African American poetry from the mid-twentieth century onward. Her late work investigates the possibilities of free verse, and her early work is a master class in what meter and rhyme can do to subjects.

Copyright of ANAFORA is the property of Anafora and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study presents an experiment aimed at discovering similarities and differences in how American and Ukrainian participants perceived contemporary free verse. Three poems were examined from the perspectives of intertextual/infratextual/intratextual context dimensions. The presence of intertextual characteristics -- reflecting social reality and metaphoric content -- was recognized by the majority in both groups of participants, yet across the groups, there were differences in the degree of value placed on each characteristic. Differences in views on the infratextual contexts reflect the variability of functions performed by the initial/intermediate/closing parts of the poems. As regards intratextual context dimension, there were significant similarities in the participants' views on the imagery, in the constructed text-worlds, emotional responses, interpretations, and encountered difficulties. The analysis of the intratextual contexts of the poems indicates that some texts may drive readers' interpretations, thus reducing the role of culture in their reception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents Alexandru Macedonskiʼs contribution to Romanian literature concerning the promotion of new literary tendencies – at the beginning in those times – Symbolism and Parnassianism. In this study I brought into discussion the vocation of “Mecenas poet” that Macedonski had in the literary space of Bucharest after the foundation of the society Literatorul. I also presented in this paper the Macedonskiʼs conception on versification. His ideas were published in the pages of the magazine “Literatorul”, in the colection entitled Arta versurilor. I highlighted here his activity as a promoter and guider in the Romanian literary space, because this is a quality that makes him radically different from his contemporaries.

Многие поэты обращались к свободным формам стиха, полагая, что только такая форма может адекватно воплотить современную действительность и восприятие этой действительности поэтом. Обращаясь в данной статье к переводам стихотворения «Er starb vor Mohaiszk» («Он пал под Мажайском») Э. М. Ремарка, написанного в свободной форме, верлибром, авторы ставили перед собой задачу проследить, как переводчики, работая с такой формой иноязычной поэзии, воплотили основные особенности оригинала на языке перевода. Проведенный сравнительный анализ оригинала и переводов показывает, что эта форма стиха, балансируя между прозой и традиционным стихосложением, требует от переводчика предельной концентрации на всех уровнях текста: лексическом, синтаксическом и ритмико-интонационном, а отступление от адекватного воссоздания даже одного из этих элементов приводит к искажению всего произведения. Результаты исследования можно использовать в спецкурсах и семинарах по теории художественного перевода, в курсах сопоставительной стилистики русского и немецкого языков, в творческих семинарах переводчиков, а также при критической оценке вновь создаваемых переводов поэтических текстов Э. М. Ремарка.

Based on the theories of Yuri Rozhdestvensky, this article considers vers libres a 'third' genre: neither prose nor poetry, but a separate artistic form where prose and poetry intersect. As other types of speech, free verse is influenced by the changes in communication technologies. Using representative examples of Russian free verse, the article studies this influence. It traces the correlations between Russian vers libres and oral genres, including proverbs and fables, and between vers libre and written genres, specifically sacred texts: psalms and prayers. It explains the influence of print technology on free verse, shows that prose printed texts can be close to free verse, and explains why scientific texts, even well written, cannot. It demonstrates how Russian verlibrists responded to mass media styles and pressures, highlighting the use of irony. The patterns and regularities observed for the Russian material may be applicable to free verse in other languages, pending further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Croatica et Slavica Iadertina is the property of University of Zadar, Department of Croatian & Slavic Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The paper outlines challenges that might be faced by translators of the first version of "Song of Myself" by Walt Whitman into Russian, which has not yet found its rightful place in the Russian literary culture. Intonation patterns of the poem in its original version of 1855 that are oversaturated with expressive means are compared to those of the authorized text of 1881. The conclusions drawn herein may prompt fancy translation solutions. Attention should be paid to Whitman's "expressive punctuation techniques" used in the first version to achieve a dramatic effect. It is noteworthy that in the authorized text, the poet is seeking to streamline the rhythm and make sound patterns richer at the expense of spontaneity and ingenuousness of the first version.

Addressing the impact of political events on changes in metrical feet is a new approach applied in this paper. Hasanpour and Vali’s viewpoints on the history of Kurdish nationalism, the relationship between literary texts and political events, and different types of meter in different languages in the world are used in this research. Prosody in Kurdish poetry includes two types of prosodic and syllabic changing from the former to the latter. This study deals with the Middle Kurmanji dialect in the Iranian and Iraqi Kurdistan from Nali’s period to the late 1980s. The change of poetic meter from the dominance of prosodic meter to the dominance of syllabic meter in Middle Kurmanji has been regarded as a symptom of changes in Kurdish identity and nationalism. In the author's view, one of the reasons for the changes in meter in Kurdish poetry is the nationalist movement. Therefore, the works of some famous Kurdish poets in the Iranian and Iraqi Kurdistan are analyzed based on a historical-documentary method and three stages are identified: prosodic, prosodic-syllabic, and syllabic. Changes in the meter in Middle Kurmanji poetry from prosodic to syllabic are simultaneous with the emergence and development of nationalist movements in the Iranian and Iraqi Kurdistan in World War II.

Poem.

This paper seeks to shed light on Ferdinand Freiligrath`s and Walt Whitman`s impact upon Miloš Crnjanski`s early political and poetological reflections. It is interesting that the Serbian poet and writer, who rarely and reluctantly spoke about his literary role models, mentions the German poet Ferdinand Freiligrath twice in his autobiographical work Ithaca and Comments, claiming he identified with him during his youth. Although obvious connections can be found in political ideas and revolutionary aspirations shared by the two poets, Freiligrath's significance seems to lie in the fact that he introduced Walt Whitman to the German literary audience and thus undoubtedly influenced the development of modern poetry.

In Louise Glück’s latest collection Faithful And Virtuous Night (2014), the poet’s swerving toward a more narrative form contributes—surprisingly perhaps—to revising the traditional Romantic chiasmus that exists between the mourning or suffering personae and their environment. This article attempts at capturing how Glück’s choices in lineation in her verse expose the intrinsic loss and hiatus there is between language and the world. It means to illustrate the way time and lyric subjectivity are structured in Glück’s latest collection.

“I am not thoroughly satisfied with what he has done. I have told him—I mean I am disgusted with him and his long lines.” As Williams delivers this message to his friend Walter Sutton, he condemns what he sees as Allen Ginsberg’s inability to both carve and curb his verse. This article explores what occurs when the line won’t break, when it goes on stubbornly wandering off the page. Ginsberg’s long verse thus comes to index a break in his modernist lineage. It operates a departure from his modernist masters, Williams, Pound and Eliot. According to the Beat poet, the line should not be modelled after the length of the page, but rather attempt to break its delineations so as to return the poem to its original breath. These observations invite us to take a closer look at the long line as both a political and personal expression of the poet’s journey on and off the page.

Copyright of Enthymema is the property of Enthymema, International Journal of Literary Criticism, Literary Theory & Philosophy of Literature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In his article “Drums of Doubt: On the Rhythmical Origins of Poetic and Scientific Exploration” Caius Dobrescu argues that even though the sciences and arts of doubt have never been connected to the notion of rhythm, doubt is a form of energy, and more specifically, a form of vibration. It implies an exploratory movement that constantly expands and recoils in a space essentially experienced as uncharted territory. Poetry acquires cognitive attributes through oscillatory rhythmic patterns that are explorative and adaptive. In order to test this hypothesis, the essay focuses on the nature and functioning of free verse. This modern prosodic mutation brings about a dovetailing of the rhythmic spectrum, but also, and more significantly, a change in the very manner of understanding and experiencing rhythm. Oscillatory rhythms are broadly associable with entrainment indexes that point to the adaptation of inner physiological and behavioral rhythms to oscillatory environment stimuli. Free verse emerges from the experience of regaining an original explorative, adaptive, and orientation-oriented condition of consciousness.

Since its birth, the generic label of prose poem has been twisted in order to admit a large variety of texts. It often happens that those texts, after a short reflection, escape from the minimal categories of the prose poem as a genre. This confusion is motivated, as it seems evident, by the polymorphism of the genre. Therefore, in this article we will try to offer a generic delimitation between the prose poem and the literary genres with which it has been usually mixed up (either from the prose or from the verse fields). For that purpose, we will consider the three criteria that have been globally accepted by the critics : brevity, organic unity and gratuity.

Developed in the context of a bipolar world order, Julius Nyerere's political philosophy of Ujamaa expressed an African socialist vision predicated on the principles of non-alignment, anti-imperialism, and the aspiration to Pan-Africanism. Government promotion of formal Swahili poetry as a medium for the dissemination of Ujamaa prompted students and faculty at the University of Dar es Salaam to begin experimenting with free verse in the early 1970s. In response, a fierce public debate would emerge about appropriate forms for poetry written in Swahili. Ostensibly an aesthetic disagreement, the debate would reflect contradictions in Ujamaa philosophy and tensions inherent to Cold War political culture. Looking beyond prevailing descriptions of the debate as a dispute between traditionalism and modernism, this article traces the emergence of poetic voices responding to and questioning both the form and content of dominant political discourse and beginning to imagine new social and political formations outside the framework of Ujamaa., On June 6, 1968, a year and a half after the release of the Arusha Declaration, which ushered in Julius Nyerere's form of African socialism--known in Swahili as Ujamaa, or [...]

This article studies the elements that make up free verse in the section "Poemas de la yolatría" of Suenan timbres by Luis Vidales from the theoretical approach of modern versology. The hypothesis proposes that in his free verse meters of the traditional verse are updated; as well as creatively operating with semantic rhythmic groups and parallels in their construction. The work develops the structural analysis from the formal plane of the four poems in said section, then the interpretation of the poem "El Hueco" and, finally, the conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to discuss the concept of "verse" and "poetic rhythm". With this investigation, we try to understand the idea of "free verse", one of the main characteristics of the XIX's production of Portuguese poetic work. For this, we introduce considerations about the first two concepts, specially about these etymological origins, with the purpose to figure how "free verse" deals with the traditional idea of rhythm in poetry, which is no longer submitted to the versification's theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents Alexandru Macedonski's contribution to Romanian literature concerning the promotion of new literary tendencies - at the beginning in those times - Symbolism and Parnassianism. In this study I brought into discussion the vocation of "Mecenas poet" that Macedonski had in the literary space of Bucharest after the foundation of the society Literatorul. I also presented in this paper the Macedonski's conception on versification. His ideas were published in the pages of the magazine "Literatorul", in the colection entitled Arta versurilor. I highlighted here his activity as a promoter and guider in the Romanian literary space, because this is a quality that makes him radically different from his contemporaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reviews the two-volume book “Studies in the History and Theory of Literary Translation” by E. G. Etkind, the first volume of which is the monograph “Poetry and Translation” (1963), and the second one contains 11 articles published in different years. The publication of the book was timed to coincide with the centenary of the birth of E. G. Etkind (1918–1999), a Leningrad professor, literary critic, translator, and scholar who played a significant role in the development of the aesthetics of poetry translation. From 1974 the scholar was in forced emigration and until 1985 his name was banned, and all his works were withdrawn from libraries. The monograph examines the criteria for the accuracy of translation, depending on the belonging of the original text to the artistic method of classicism, romanticism or realism. It is important in the work of a translator to be aware of the style, metric characteristics, and structure of the verse under translation, for which the translator must have not only knowledge of literature, but also of history, culture, and geography of foreign countries. The second volume contains articles on the history of Russian translated poetry and the history of French poetry in Russian translations. The main focus of the articles is on the analysis of the literary translation activity of the most significant poets and translators of the 20th century: M. Lozinsky, S. Marshak, B. Pasternak, etc.