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Behind the complex phenomenon of the phylogenetic development of tool use and its potential causal implication for higher forms of cognition, there are important 'lower level' aspects of cognition that highlight how tool use plays a causal role in shaping both spatial and bodily representations, and this is the focus of this chapter. First, it offers a definition of the word tool and in particular of what can be called tool use in our perspective, for operational purposes. Second, it considers the causal role that tool use plays in producing changes in space perception and body representation. Third, it discusses the challenges tool use presents for the sensorimotor system of the human and non-human primate brain.

Purpose: The interest in human conscious awareness has increasingly propelled the study of neglect, the most striking occurrence of an acquired lack of conscious experience of space. Neglect syndromes commonly arise after unilateral brain damage that spares primary sensory areas nonetheless leading to a lack of conscious stimulus perception. Because of the central role of vision in our everyday life and motor behaviour, most research on neglect has been carried out in the visual domain. Here, we suggest that a comprehensive perspective on neglect should examine in parallel evidence from all sensory modalities. Methods: We critically reviewed relevant literature on neglect within and between sensory modalities. Results: A number of studies have investigated manifestations of neglect in the tactile and auditory modalities, as well as in the chemical senses, supporting the idea that neglect can arise in various sensory modalities, either separately or concurrently. Moreover, studies on extinction (i.e., failure to report the contralesional stimulus only when this is delivered together with a concurrent one in the ipsilesional side), a deficit to some extent related to neglect, showed strong interactions between sensory modality for the conscious perception of stimuli and representation of space. Conclusions: Examining neglect and extinction by taking into account evidence from all sensory modalities in parallel can provide deeper comprehension of the neglect syndrome mechanisms and possibly more effective multi-sensory based rehabilitation approaches. © 2006 - IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved.

Interpersonal space (IPS) is the area surrounding our own bodies in which we interact comfortably with other individuals. During the COVID-19 pandemic, keeping larger IPS than usual, along with wearing a face mask, is one of the most effective measures to slow down the COVID-19 outbreak. Here, we explore the contribution of actual and perceived risk of contagion and anxiety levels in regulating our preferred social distance from other people during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. In this study, 1293 individuals from six Italian regions with different levels of actual risk of infection participated in an online survey assessing their perceived risk to be infected, level of anxiety and IPS. Two tasks were adopted as measures of interpersonal distance: the Interpersonal Visual Analogue Scale and a questionnaire evaluating interpersonal distance with and without face mask. The results showed that the IPS regulation was affected by how people subjectively perceived COVID-19 risk and the related level of anxiety, not by actual objective risk. This clarifies that the role of threat in prompting avoidant behaviors expressed in increased IPS does not merely reflect environmental events but rather how they are subjectively experienced and represented.

Prolonged periods of restrictions on people's freedom of movement during the first massive wave of the COVID-19 pandemic meant that most people engaged in all their daily activities at home. This suggested the need for the spatial features of the home and its occupants' perception of them to be investigated in terms of people's wellbeing. The present study was conducted on a large sample (N = 1354) drawn from different Italian regions. It examined the relationship between the “objective” and “subjective” dimensions of the home, measured in terms of objective home crowding and satisfaction with the space at home, in relation to perceived stress and the perceived risk of COVID-19 infection during the lockdown. The results showed that perceived stress is influenced by objective home crowding through the mediation of satisfaction with the space at home. These associations were more pronounced in younger generations. The negative association between satisfaction with the space at home and perceived stress was higher, the lower the perceived COVID-19 risk.

Processing of temporal information may require the use of spatial attention to represent time along a mental time line. We used prismatic adaptation (PA) to explore the contribution of spatial attention to the spatial representation of time in right brain damaged patients with and without neglect of left space and in age-matched healthy controls. Right brain damaged patients presented time underestimation deficits, that were significantly greater in patients with neglect than in patients without neglect. PA inducing leftward attentional deviation reduced time underestimation deficit in patients with neglect. The results support the hypothesis that a right hemispheric network has a role, per se, in time perception. Moreover, they suggest that right hemisphere is important in time perception for its control of spatial attention, engaged in spatial representation of time. Procedures that ameliorate left spatial deficits could also be useful for modulating temporal deficits in right brain damaged patients with neglect.

Growing evidence indicates that the representations of space and time interact in the brain but the exact neural correlates of such interaction remain unknown. Neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies show that processing of temporal information engages a distributed network in the right hemisphere and suggest a link between deficits in spatial attention and deficits in time perception. In the present study we used the procedure of prismatic adaptation (PA) to directionally manipulate spatial attention in order to explore the effect of attentional deviation on time perception in patients with right (RBD) vs. left (LBD) brain damage. In a first experiment, two groups of RBD and LBD patients and two groups of age-matched healthy subjects were submitted to a time reproduction task before and after rightward or leftward PA (between-group design). In a second experiment RBD and LBD patients were submitted to the same task, before and after rightward and leftward PA (within-group design). RBD but not LBD patients presented a time deficit with a clear tendency to underestimate the real time. PA inducing leftward attentional deviation biased time perception toward an underestimation in RBD patients and controls, while it was ineffective in LBD patients. PA inducing a rightward attentional deviation failed to affect time perception in either group. These results underline the effects of PA on temporal deficits in brain damaged patients. The novel finding is that, while a right hemispheric network is critical for explicit timing, a left hemispheric network is necessary for mediating the effects of prismatic adaptation on spatial and temporal perception.

1. Introduction. The existence of a spatial representation of time, where temporal intervals are represented on a mental temporal line (MTL), oriented in ascending order from left to right, was demonstrated manipulating spatial attention by means of Prismatic Adaptation (PA). In young healthy subjects, prisms adaptation inducing a rightward shift of spatialattention produced an overestimation of time intervals, whereas prisms adaptation inducing a leftward shift of spatialattention produced an underestimation of time intervals [4]. The aimof the present study was to investigate the neural basis mediating the effects of PA on spatial time representation. PosteriorParietalCortex (PPC) is the best candidate to discharge this function. Indeed, neuropsychological and neurophysiological studies designate rightPPC as the site of spacetime interaction [1,3,7]. Concerning the neural bases of PA procedures, left and rightPPC are involved in different phases of PA procedure [2,5, 6]. Here we investigated, by using TMS, the role of the PosteriorParietalCortex (PPC) in spatial representation of time and in cerebral plasticity phenomena mediating prismatic adaptation effects on time processing. To this aim, healthy subjects were submitted to a temporal task before and after PA. TMS was applied on left or right PPC, before or after PA. If the right (left) PPC is the key area leading the effects of PA on time, a reduced effect of PA on time is expected for TMS over right (left) PPC both before and after PA. If the right (left) PPC plays a role in PA procedure and not in mediating PA effects on time, the effect of TMS over right (left) PPC is expected for TMS applied before and not after PA.

Neurophysiological studies have shown in animals that a sudden sound enhanced perceptual processing of subsequent visual stimuli. In the present chapter we explored the possibility that such enhancement also exists in humans and can be explained through crossmodal integration effects, whereby the interaction occurs at the level of bimodal neurons. Normal subjects and RBD patients were required to detect visual stimuli in a unimodal visual condition or in crossmodal audio-visual conditions. The spatial and the temporal proximity of multisensory stimuli were systematically varied. An enhancement of the visual percetion was found when the audiovisual stimuli followed a rather clear spatial and temporal rule, governing multisensory integration at the neuronal level.

Spatial attention and spatial representation of time are strictly linked in the human brain. In young adults, a leftward shift of spatial attention by prismatic adaptation (PA), is associated with an underestimation whereas a rightward shift is associated with an overestimation of time both for visual and auditory stimuli. These results suggest a supra-modal representation of time left-to-right oriented that is modulated by a bilateral attentional shift. However, there is evidence of unilateral, instead of bilateral, effects of PA on time in elderly adults suggesting an influence of age on these effects. Here we studied the effects of spatial attention on time representation focusing on childhood. Fifty-four children aged from 5 to 11 years-old performed a temporal bisection task with visual and auditory stimuli before and after PA inducing a leftward or a rightward attentional shift. Results showed that children underestimated time after a leftward attentional shift either for visual or auditory stimuli, whereas a rightward attentional shift had null effect on time. Our results are discussed as a partial maturation of the link between spatial attention and time representation in childhood, due to immaturity of interhemispheric interactions or of executive functions necessary for the attentional complete influence on time representation.

The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in mental time travel toward the past and the future is debated. Here, patients with focal lesions to the vmPFC and brain-damaged and healthy controls mentally projected themselves to a past, present or future moment of subjective time (self-projection) and classified a series of events as past or future relative to the adopted temporal self-location (self-reference). We found that vmPFC patients were selectively impaired in projecting themselves to the future and in recognizing relative-future events. These findings indicate that vmPFC damage hinders the mental processing of and movement toward future events, pointing to a prominent, multifaceted role of vmPFC in future-oriented mental time travel.

Il litisconsorzio necessario e facoltativo

The brain constructs a functional representation of the space around the body, the so called peripersonal space (PPS), which is a sensorimotor interface used to ensure suitable motor acts. However, this sector of space is also involved in social interactions. Individuals indeed, maintain an interpersonal space (IPS) indicating how close they prefer to stand relative to others. Here, we investigated whether a change in one’s own body height representation can differently modulate action and social space. To this aim, we measured IPS and PPS in a similar way through a Reaching-distance and a Comfort-distance task, respectively, before and after participants experienced the illusion of having a tall (Experiment 1), or a short (Experiment 2), body. The illusion of having a tall body significantly reduced the IPS and enlarged PPS. On the other hand, the illusion of having a short body contracted the IPS, leaving the PPS intact. A further experiment (Experiment 3), showed that the illusory ownership for the tall or short body is a necessary condition to update the participants’ height representation. Thus, a change in body height representation was effective to reveal a dissociation in the representation of the space around the body, depending on whether this sector of space is used for programming actions, or for regulating social interactions.

L'intervento di terzi in causa

In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in research examining interpersonal space, i.e., the sector of space immediately around the body in which we interact with other people. These studies have consistently revealed impairments of interpersonal space regulation in psychopathological disorders characterized by social disability, such as autism, schizophrenia and social anxiety. The primary goal of this review is to discuss several key points that have emerged in research on interpersonal space regulation in autism spectrum disorders. Particularly, we review recent behavioral evidence revealing that individuals with autism prefer abnormally larger or shorter interpersonal distance than healthy controls, indicating a deficit in regulating the size of interpersonal space (permeability). Then, we focus on how individuals with autism fail to modify their interpersonal space following a brief cooperative interaction with an unfamiliar adult, suggesting a deficit in adapting interpersonal space to the social context (plasticity). Moreover, we discuss evidence indicating that space regulation deficits primarily affect interpersonal (i.e., social), but not peripersonal (i.e., action), space in autism. Finally, we take into consideration the variables influencing interpersonal space plasticity such as person's perspective and severity of social impairment as well as its neural underpinnings. These findings may provide a critical contribution to understanding of the functional mechanisms underlying interpersonal space regulation and its rehabilitation in autism spectrum disorders.

Recent neuropsychological evidence put forward impaired ability in processing particular aspects of time, such as Mental Time Travel (MTT), in brain damaged patients exhibiting a deficit of spatial attention (i.e., neglect) and the possibility to recover this MTT deficit through a manipulation of spatial attention by prism adaptation (PA). The aim of the present study was twofold. First, we explored whether the neglect patients' impairment in MTT is linked with an impairment in functional competences, such as processing temporal duration of everyday activities, motor abilities and independence in daily living. Second, we focused on rehabilitation, investigating the long-term duration of the benefits induced by a PA treatment on both mental time travel and the above-mentioned functional abilities. To these aims, neglect patients were submitted to a MTT task, as well as to a battery of tests assessing spatial attention, estimation of time duration, motor competence and independence in activities of daily living. All tests were performed before, at the end, and one week after 10 daily sessions of PA treatment inducing a leftward shift of spatial attention. Results suggest that neglect patients' impairment in MTT ability correlates with spatial attention deficit and with difficulties in producing reasonable temporal estimation of daily life activities. Crucially, the PA treatment induces a long-lasting and stable amelioration of MTT, spatial attention and functional competences.

Mechanisms underlying the self/other distinction have been mainly investigated focusing on visual, tactile or proprioceptive cues, whereas very little is known about the contribution of acoustical information. Here the ability to distinguish between self and others' voice is investigated by using a neuropsychological approach. Right (RBD) and left brain damaged (LBD) patients and healthy controls were submitted to a voice discrimination and a voice recognition task. Stimuli were paired words/pseudowords pronounced by the participant, by a familiar or unfamiliar person. In the voice discrimination task, participants had to judge whether two voices were same or different, whereas in the voice recognition task participants had to judge whether their own voice was or was not present. Crucially, differences between patient groups were found. In the discrimination task, only RBD patients were selectively impaired when their own voice was present. By contrast, in the recognition task, both RBD and LBD patients were impaired and showed two different biases: RBD patients misattributed the other's voice to themselves, while LBD patients denied the ownership of their own voice. Thus, two kinds of bias can affect self-voice recognition: we can refuse self-stimuli (voice disownership), or we can misidentify others' stimuli as our own (embodiment of others' voice). Overall, these findings reflect different impairments in self/other distinction both at behavioral and anatomical level, the right hemisphere being involved in voice discrimination and both hemispheres in the voice identity explicit recognition. The finding of selective brain networks dedicated to processing one's own voice demonstrates the relevance of self-related acoustic information in bodily self-representation., Highlights • The neural basis of self/other voice discrimination and recognition were studied. • Self-voice discrimination was selectively impaired in right brain damaged patients. • Left brain damaged patients showed self-voice disownership in voice recognition. • Right brain damaged patients showed others' voice embodiment in voice recognition. • Specific components of voice identity are linked to distinct brain networks.

Prismatic adaptation (PA) has been shown to affect left-to-right spatial representations of temporal durations. A leftward aftereffect usually distorts time representation toward an underestimation, while rightward aftereffect usually results in an overestimation of temporal durations. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study the neural mechanisms that underlie PA effects on time perception. Additionally, we investigated whether the effect of PA on time is transient or stable and, in the case of stability, which cortical areas are responsible of its maintenance. Functional brain images were acquired while participants (n = 17) performed a time reproduction task and a control-task before, immediately after and 30 min after PA inducing a leftward aftereffect, administered outside the scanner. The leftward aftereffect induced an underestimation of time intervals that lasted for at least 30 min. The left anterior insula and the left superior frontal gyrus showed increased functional activation immediately after versus before PA in the time versus the control-task, suggesting these brain areas to be involved in the executive spatial manipulation of the representation of time. The left middle frontal gyrus showed an increase of activation after 30 min with respect to before PA. This suggests that this brain region may play a key role in the maintenance of the PA effect over time.

Accumulating evidence suggests that humans process time and space in similar veins. Humans represent time along a spatial continuum, and perception of temporal durations can be altered through manipulations of spatial attention by prismatic adaptation (PA). Here, we investigated whether PA-induced manipulations of spatial attention can also influence more conceptual aspects of time, such as humans’ ability to travel mentally back and forward in time (mental time travel, MTT). Before and after leftward- and rightward-PA, participants projected themselves in the past, present or future time (i.e., self-projection), and, for each condition, determined whether a series of events were located in the past or the future with respect to that specific self-location in time (i.e., self-reference). The results demonstrated that leftward and rightward shifts of spatial attention facilitated recognition of past and future events, respectively. These findings suggest that spatial attention affects the temporal processing of the human self.

The aim of the present study was to explore the spatial organization of auditory time and the effects of the manipulation of spatial attention on such a representation. In two experiments, we asked 28 adults to classify the duration of auditory stimuli as “short” or “long”. Stimuli were tones of high or low pitch, delivered left or right of the participant. The time bisection task was performed either on right or left stimuli regardless of their pitch (Spatial experiment), or on high or low tones regardless of their location (Tonal experiment). Duration of left stimuli was underestimated relative to that of right stimuli, in the Spatial but not in the Tonal experiment, suggesting that a spatial representation of auditory time emerges selectively when spatial-encoding is enforced. Further, when we introduced spatial-attention shifts using the prismatic adaptation procedure, we found modulations of auditory time processing as a function of prismatic deviation, which correlated with the interparticipant adaptation effect. These novel findings reveal a spatial representation of auditory time, modulated by spatial attention.

Neuroscientists and philosophers, among others, have long questioned the contribution of bodily experience to the constitution of self-consciousness. Contemporary research answers this question by focusing on the notions of sense of agency and/or sense of ownership. Recently, however, it has been proposed that the bodily self might also be rooted in bodily motor experience, that is, in the experience of oneself as instantiating a bodily structure that enables a specific range of actions. In the current fMRI study, we tested this hypothesis by making participants undergo a hand laterality judgment task, which is known to be solved by simulating a motor rotation of one's own hand. The stimulus to be judged was either the participant's own hand or the hand of a stranger. We used this task to investigate whether mental rotation of pictures depicting one's own hands leads to a different activation of the sensorimotor areas as compared with the mental rotation of pictures depicting another's hand. We revealed a neural network for the general representation of the bodily self encompassing the SMA and pre-SMA, the anterior insula, and the occipital cortex, bilaterally. Crucially, the representation of one's own dominant hand turned out to be primarily confined to the left premotor cortex. Our data seem to support the existence of a sense of bodily self encased within the sensorimotor system. We propose that such a sensorimotor representation of the bodily self might help us to differentiate our own body from that of others.

Objective: Bodily self-recognition is one aspect of our ability to distinguish between self and others and is central to effective socialization. Here we explored the influence of emotional body postures on bodily self-processing in typically developing (TD) as well as in high-functioning ASD children. Method: Subjects’ bodies were photographed while expressing endogenously- (self-generated, Experiment 1) or exogenously-driven body emotions (imitated upon request, Experiment 2). Postures conveying positive (happiness), negative (fearful) and neutral valences were used. These pictures served as stimuli in a visual matching-to-sample task with self and others’ body-images. Results: A similar self-versus-others advantage was found in TD and in ASD children, since participants were faster with stimuli representing their own than others’ body. This “self-advantage” was modulated by self-expressed emotional body postures being present with pictures of happy and neutral, but not fearful body images. This modulation was stronger when emotional postures were endogenously rather than exogenously driven. Moreover, faster responses were observed for others’ fearful rather than happy or neutral body images in both groups. Conclusions: The bodily self-advantage is a low-level function present in typically developing (TD) and in high-functioning ASD children. Body postures, especially when they are endogenously generated, modulate the self and others’ body processing. The advantage for processing others’ fearful, comparing to others’ happy and neutral, body postures may have played a crucial evolutionary role for species survival.

Multiple, action-based space representations are each based on the extent to which action is possible toward a specific sector of space, such as near/reachable and far/unreachable. Studies on tool-use revealed how the boundaries between these representations are dynamic. Space is not only multidimensional and dynamic, but it is also known for interacting with other dimensions of magnitude, such as time. However, whether time operates on similar action-driven multiple representations and whether it can be modulated by tool-use is yet unknown. To address these issues, healthy participants performed a time bisection task in two spatial positions (near and far space) before and after an active tool-use training, which consisted of performing goal-directed actions holding a tool with their right hand (Experiment 1). Before training, perceived stimuli duration was influenced by their spatial position defined by action. Hence, a dissociation emerged between near/reachable and far/unreachable space. Strikingly, this dissociation disappeared after the active tool-use training since temporal stimuli were now perceived as nearer. The remapping was not found when a passive tool-training was executed (Experiment 2) or when the active tool-training was performed with participants' left hand (Experiment 3). Moreover, no time remapping was observed following an equivalent active hand-training but without a tool (Experiment 4). Taken together, our findings reveal that time processing is based on action-driven multiple representations. The dynamic nature of these representations is demonstrated by the remapping of time, which is action- and effector-dependent.

Multiple, action-based space representations are each based on the extent to which action is possible toward a specific sector of space, such as near/reachable and far/ unreachable. Studies on tool-use revealed how the boundaries between these representations are dynamic. Space is not only multidimensional and dynamic, but it is also known for interacting with other dimensions of magnitude, such as time. However, whether time operates on similar action-driven multiple representations and whether it can be modulated by tool-use is yet unknown. To address these issues, healthy participants performed a time bisection task in two spatial positions (near and far space) before and after an active tool-use training, which consisted of performing goal-directed actions holding a tool with their right hand (Experiment 1). Before training, perceived stimuli duration was influenced by their spatial position defined by action. Hence, a dissociation emerged between near/reachable and far/unreachable space. Strikingly, this dissociation disappeared after the active tool-use training since temporal stimuli were now perceived as nearer. The remapping was not found when a passive tool-training was executed (Experiment 2) or when the active tool-training was performed with participants’ left hand (Experiment 3). Moreover, no time remapping was observed following an equivalent active hand-training but without a tool (Experiment 4). Taken together, our findings reveal that time processing is based on action-driven multiple representations. The dynamic nature of these representations is demonstrated by the remapping of time, which is action- and effectordependent.

Previous studies have demonstrated the involvement of spatial codes in the representation of time and numbers. We took advantage of a well-known spatial modulation (prismatic adaptation) to test the hypothesis that the representation of time is spatially oriented from left to right, with smaller time intervals being represented to the left of larger time intervals. Healthy subjects performed a time-reproduction task and a time-bisection task, before and after leftward and rightward prismatic adaptation. Results showed that prismatic adaptation inducing a rightward orientation of spatial attention produced an overestimation of time intervals, whereas prismatic adaptation inducing a leftward shift of spatial attention produced an underestimation of time intervals. These findings not only confirm that temporal intervals are represented as horizontally arranged in space, but also reveal that spatial modulation of time processing most likely occurs via cuing of spatial attention, and that spatial attention can influence the spatial coding of quantity in different dimensions.

In the present study, we investigated the possibility that bimodal audiovisual stimulation of the affected hemifield can improve perception of the visual events in the blind hemifield of hemianopic patients, as it was previously demonstrated in neglect patients. Moreover, it has been shown that “hetero-modal” and “sensory-specific” cortices are involved in cross-modal integration. Thus, the second aim of the present study was to examine whether audiovisual integration influences visual detection in patients with different cortical lesions responsible of different kinds of visual disorders. More specifically, we investigated cross-modal, audiovisual integration in patients with visual impairment due to a visual field deficit (e.g., hemianopia) or visuospatial attentional deficit (e.g., neglect) and patients with both hemianopia and neglect. Patients were asked to detect visual stimuli presented alone or in combination with auditory stimuli that could be spatially aligned or not with the visual ones. The results showed an enhancement of visual detection in cross-modal condition (spatially aligned condition) comparing to unimodal visual condition only in patients with hemianopia or neglect; by contrast, the multi-sensory integration did not occur when patients presented both deficits. These data suggest that patients with visual disorders can enormously benefit the multisensory integration. Moreover, they showed a different influence of cortical lesion on multi-sensory integration. Thus, the present results show the important adaptive meaning of multisensory integration and are very promising with respect to the possibility of recovery from visual and spatial impairments.

Objectives: The evolutionary pattern of spontaneous recovery from acute neglect was studied by assessing cognitive deficits and motor impairments. Detailed lesion reconstruction was also performed to correlate the presence of and recovery from neglect to neural substrates. Methods: A consecutive series of right brain-damaged (RBD) patients with and without neglect underwent weekly tests in the acute phase of the illness. The battery assessed neglect deficits, neglect-related deficits, and motor impairment. Age-matched normal subjects were also investigated to ascertain the presence of non lateralised attentional deficits. Some neglect patients were also available for later investigation during the chronic phase of their illness. Results: Partial recovery of neglect deficits was observed at the end of the acute period and during the chronic phase. Spatial attention was impaired in acute neglect patients, while non spatial attentional deficits were present in RBD patients with and without acute neglect. A strong association was found between acute neglect and fronto-parietal lesions. Similar lesions were associated with neglect persistence. In the chronic stage, neglect recovery was paralleled by improved motor control of the contralesional upper limb, thus emphasising that neglect is a negative prognostic factor in motor functional recovery. Conclusions: These findings show that spatial attention deficits partially improve during the acute phase of the disease in less than half the patients investigated. There was an improvement in left visuospatial neglect at a later, chronic stage of the disease, but this recovery was not complete.

We explored whether time and space representations modulate each other in subjects that are trained to integrate time and space dimensions, i.e., professional dancers. A group of dancers, and one of non-dancers, underwent two different tasks employing identical stimuli. A first static central line could last one of three possible durations and could have one of three possible lengths. A second growing line appeared from the left or right of the screen and grew up toward the opposite direction at constant velocity. In the Spatial task, subjects encoded the length of the static line and stopped the growing line when it had reached half the length of the static one, regardless of time travel. In the Temporal task, subjects encoded the duration of the static line and stopped the growing line when it had lasted half the duration of the static one, regardless of space traveled. Dancers, differently from non-dancers, anticipated time in the Temporal task. However, both dancers and non-dancers were biased by the stimulus length when performing the Temporal task, while they were not biased by the stimulus duration when performing the Spatial task. Concluding, this study underlines the plasticity of time dimension that can be influenced by spatial information and by sensorimotor training for the synchronization in space and time.