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Soil properties are the most important factors determining the safety of civil engineering structures. One of the soil improvement methods studied, mainly under laboratory conditions, is the use of microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP). Many factors influencing the successful application of the MICP method can be distinguished; however, one of the most important factors is the composition of the bio-cementation solution. This study aimed to propose an optimal combination of a bio-cementation solution based on carbonate precipitation, crystal types, and the comprehensive strength of fine sand after treatment. A series of laboratory tests were conducted with the urease-producing environmental strain of bacteria B. subtilis , using various combinations of cementation solutions containing precipitation precursors (H 2 NCONH 2 , C 6 H 10 CaO 6 , CaCl 2 , MgCl 2 ). To decrease the environmental impact and increase the efficiency of MICP processed, the addition of calcium lactate (CaL) and Mg ions was evaluated. This study was conducted in Petri dishes, assuming a 14-day soil treatment period. The content of water-soluble carbonate precipitates and their mineralogical characterization, as well as their mechanical properties, were determined using a pocket penetrometer test. The studies revealed that a higher concentration of CaL and Mg in the cementation solution led to the formation of a higher amount of precipitates during the cementation process. However, the crystal forms were not limited to stable forms, such as calcite, aragonite, (Ca, Mg)-calcite, and dolomite, but also included water-soluble components such as nitrocalcite, chloro-magnesite, and nitromagnesite. The presence of bacteria allowed for the increasing of the carbonate content by values ranging from 15% to 42%. The highest comprehensive strength was achieved for the bio-cementation solution containing urea (0.25 M), CaL (0.1 M), and an Mg/Ca molar ratio of 0.4. In the end, this research helped to achieve higher amounts of precipitates with the optimum combination of bio-cementation solutions for the soil improvement process. However, the numerical analysis of the precipitation processes and the methods reducing the environmental impact of the technology should be further investigated.

Mechanically treated fly ash (FA) was utilised to provide Al and Si atoms for zeolite synthesis. A combination of mechanical fly ash activation and classical hydrothermal synthesis led to favourable dissolution of activated fly ash and improved crystallization of zeolites. The milling activation step induced structural changes in FA to promote its reactivity in alkaline solution. The conversion of milled FA into zeolite materials was finally completed in the second step, during hydrothermal synthesis. The effect of such factors as crystallization temperature, milling time, and solution conditioning were systematically studied. The physicochemical properties characterising the obtained zeolite materials were determined via particle size distribution (PSD), nitrogen adsorption-desorption, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). As a result, the best samples achieved a high degree of crystallinity and an extensive specific surface area of 292 m 2 /g, 87.4 m 2 /g, 41.9 m 2 /g for Na-X, Na-P1, and Na-A, respectively. The obtained results provide new and useful data for utilising fly ash resources and synthesising other practical zeolites through an innovative, mechanochemically assisted, and template-free approach.

Modification of zeolites with organic compounds is of increasing interest due to their significant potential in removing emerging pollutants from water. In this work, zeolites from fly ash with three different structure types, NaX (faujasite), NaA (Linde A) and NaP1 (gismondine), were modified with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), and their adsorption efficacy towards tetracycline (TC) antibiotic in aqueous solutions have been studied. To assess the effect of modification on the zeolites, they were subjected to chemical, mineralogical and surface analyses using X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetry (TG), scanning electron microscope (SEM), N2 adsorption/desorption isotherm, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The maximum adsorption capacity for NaX-CD, NaA-CD and NaP1-CD was around 48, 60, and 38 mg/g, respectively. The fastest adsorption rate was observed for NaP1-CD, which achieved adsorption equilibria after 200 min, while for NaX-CD and NaA-CD it was established after around 24 h. The kinetic data were best described by the Elovich model, followed by pseudo-second order, while the Sips and Redlich-Peterson models were the most suitable to describe the adsorption isotherms. Based on the adsorption data as well as FTIR and XPS results, TC adsorption efficacy is strongly related to the amount of CD attached to the mineral, and hydrogen bonding formation probably plays the major role between CDs and adsorbate.

Pure zeolite (Na-X) and a zeolite-carbon composite (Na-X(C)) were investigated as adsorbents of heavy metals-Pb 2+ and Zn 2+ from an aqueous solution. These materials were synthesized from fly ash-a waste from conventional hard coal combustion. Both solids were characterized using XRD, SEM-EDS, nitrogen adsorption/desorption, particle size and elemental composition analyses. The adsorption study was performed at pH 5 in the systems containing one or two adsorbates simultaneously. The obtained results showed that the pure zeolite was characterized by a more developed surface area (728 m 2 /g) than its carbon composite (272 m 2 /g), and the mean pore diameters were equal to 1.73 and 2.56 nm, respectively. The pure Na-X zeolite showed better adsorption properties towards heavy metals than its Na-X(C) composite, and Zn 2+ adsorbed amounts were significantly higher than the Pb 2+ ones (the highest experimental adsorption levels were: for Zn 2+ -656 and 600 mg/g, and for Pb 2+ -575 and 314 mg/g, on the Na-X and Na-X(C) surfaces, respectively). The zinc ions are exchanged with the cations inside the zeolite materials structure more effectively than lead ions with a considerably larger size. In the mixed systems, the competition between both heavy metals for access to the active sites on the adsorbent surface leads to the noticeable reduction in their adsorbed amounts. Moreover, the hydrochloric acid was a better desorbing agent for both heavy metals, especially Pb 2+ one (desorption reached 78%), than sodium base (maximal desorption 25%).

The possibility of application of chitosan-modified zeolite as sorbent for Cu(II), Zn(II), Mn(II), and Fe(III) ions and their mixtures in the presence of N -(1,2-dicarboxyethyl)-D,L-aspartic acid, IDHA) under different experimental conditions were investigated. Chitosan-modified zeolite belongs to the group of biodegradable complexing agents used in fertilizer production. NaP1CS as a carrier forms a barrier to the spontaneous release of the fertilizer into soil. The obtained materials were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR); surface area determination (ASAP); scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS); X-ray fluorescence (XRF); X-ray diffraction (XRD); and carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (CHN), as well as thermogravimetric (TGA) methods. The concentrations of Cu(II), Zn(II), Mn(II), and Fe(III) complexes with IDHA varied from 5-20 mg/dm 3 for Cu(II), 10-40 mg/dm 3 for Fe(III), 20-80 mg/dm 3 for Mn(II), and 10-40 mg/dm 3 for Zn(II), respectively; pH value (3-6), time (1-120 min), and temperature (293-333 K) on the sorption efficiency were tested. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Temkin adsorption models were applied to describe experimental data. The pH 5 proved to be appropriate for adsorption. The pseudo-second order and Langmuir models were consistent with the experimental data. The thermodynamic parameters indicate that adsorption is spontaneous and endothermic. The highest desorption percentage was achieved using the HCl solution, therefore, proving that method can be used to design slow-release fertilizers.

This study investigated a low-energy-consuming procedure for the synthesis of zeolite materials from coal fly ash (CFA). Materials containing zeolite phases, namely Na-X, Na-P1, and zeolite A, were produced from F-class fly ash, using NaOH dissolved in distilled water or in wastewater obtained from the wet flue gas desulphurization process, under atmospheric pressure at a temperature below 70 °C. The influence of temperature, exposure time, and alkaline solution concentration on the synthesized materials was tested. In addition, chemical, mineralogical, and textural properties of the obtained materials were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Cd(II), Ni(II), NH 4 + cation, and Se(VI) anion sorption experiments were conducted to compare the sorption properties of the produced synthetic zeolites with those of the commercially available ones. Zeolitization resulted in an increase of CEC (up to 30 meq/100 g) compared to raw CFA and enhanced the ability of the material to adsorb the chosen ions. The obtained synthetic zeolites showed comparable or greater sorption properties than natural clinoptilolite and synthetic Na-P1. They were also capable of simultaneously removing cationic and anionic compounds. The structural, morphological, and textural properties of the final product indicated that it could potentially be used as an adsorbent for various types of environmental pollutants.

This article presents research results relating to the potential for waste utilization in the form of polymer optical fiber (POF) scraps. This material is difficult to recycle due to its diverse construction. Three different volumes of POF were used in concrete in these tests: 1%, 2%, and 3%. The experimental studies investigated the basic properties of the concrete, the elastic and dynamic moduli, as well as deformation and deflection of reinforced beams. The microstructures, including the interfacial transition zones (ITZs), were recorded and analyzed using a scanning electron microscope. It was observed that 180 freezing-thawing cycles reduced the concrete frost resistance containing 3% POFs by half compared to the control concrete. The resistance to salt crystallization of this concrete decreased by about 55%. POFs have significant effects on the splitting tensile and flexural strengths compared to the compressive strength. The control beams were destroyed during the four-point static bending tests at half the force applied to the beams that were reinforced with POFs.

Nowadays, the contamination of water with phenol is a serious environmental problem. This compound occurs very often with heavy metal ions which makes purification of water even more difficult. This article presents the problem of the removal of phenol from aqueous solutions in the presence of Cu(II) ions on synthetic zeolite NaP1 and zeolite NaP1 modified with chitosan. The adsorbents were determined with the use of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherm, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The studies on isotherms and batch kinetics under diversified experimental conditions with respect to initial concentration, contact time, and pH were discussed. Both Cu(II) and phenol adsorption increases with the initial concentration. Different isotherm models correspond well with the data acquired through experiments. The kinetics of adsorption follows the pseudo-second order rate equation. The studies indicate that the obtained sorbents can be employed for efficient removal of phenol from wastewater in the presence of Cu(II) ions.

This article focuses on the impact of fly ash from the combustion of municipal sewage sludge (FAMSS) as a cement additive in the amounts of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% (by mass) on selected concrete properties. In the course of the experimental work, water penetration depth and compressive strength measurements were made at various periods of curing (from 2 to 365 days). In addition, the potential impact of FAMSS on the natural environment was examined by determining the leachability of heavy metals. FAMSS-modified concretes showed small values of water penetration depth (lower than 50 mm), as well as good compressive strength (reaching minimum class C30/37 after 130 days of maturing)-similar to the compressive strength obtained for conventional concrete. In addition, the partial replacement of cement with FAMSS has environmental benefits, expressed as a reduction in CO 2 emissions. In addition, study has shown that compliance with environmental requirements is associated with heavy metal leaching., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Zeolites, naturally possessing a high negative surface charge and large specific surface, are used in agriculture as cationic fertilizers, water holders, heavy metals, and organic pollutants sorbents. Since some nutrients occur in anionic forms, there is a need to modify the zeolite surface to hold anions. In this study, hydrogen (hydrochloric acid), iron (Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ), and aluminum cations as well as the influence of sodium hydroxide modifiers on the specific surface area, water vapor, adsorption energy, fractal dimension, mesopore volumes and radii, electrokinetic (zeta) potential, and isoelectric point were investigated. The use of alkali solution did not affect the zeolite properties significantly, whereas hydrogen, iron, and treatments with aluminum cations resulted in an increase in the specific surface area, mesopore volumes, and radii, and a decrease in the water-binding forces. Aluminum cations were the most effective in recharging the zeolite surface from negative to positive, shifting the isoelectric point toward the highest values. Calcination enlarged the negative surface charge and mesopore radius, and diminished the surface area and mesopore volume. The modified zeolites are promising carriers of anionic nutrients, large surface area sorbents, and suppliers of water for plant roots in soil.

The paper presents the possibility of using the liquid crystal display (LCD) waste as a partial substitute of fine aggregate. Concretes with two types of cement, CEM I 42.5 R and CEM II/B-S 42.5 N, with and without LCD addition, were investigated. The properties that influence the structures exposed to severe environments were examined. The results and analyses pertaining to their micro-structure, including interfacial transition zone (ITZ), were presented as well. All concretes exhibited good freeze-thaw (F-T) resistance after 150 F-T cycles. The water-tightness was established as 0.8 MPa. All concretes both with and without LCD achieved the same class C50/60.

The possibility and effectiveness of removal of phosphate from aqueous solutions with the use of new low-cost synthetic zeolites obtained from fly ash and modified with lanthanum, was studied. Physicochemical properties of the zeolites were characterized by different techniques such as X-ray diffraction, low-temperature nitrogen sorption and scanning electron microscopy. It has been established that lanthanum is preferentially located in the zeolites channels and cages, which is related to the ion-exchange method of modification. Introduction of lanthanum cations leads to a reduction in BET surface area, mainly due to a decrease in the area of micropores and reduction in the pore volume. The key element of the study was a series of tests of phosphate adsorption from aqueous solutions. The efficiency of adsorption process was found to depend on the concentration of adsorbate, pH of its solution and temperature. The sorption capacity of zeolites obtained from fly ashes (La-P1, La-A) towards phosphate was compared with that of a natural zeolite - clinoptilolite, modified with lanthanum (La-CLP). The sorption capacities of the particular samples were as follows: La-P1 - 58.2 mg/g, La-A - 44.0 mg/g and La-CLP - 24.6 mg/g. The experimental data were well fitted by the Langmuir isotherm model. The sorption capacities of all samples towards phosphate increased with temperature increasing from 25 to 60 °C. The values of the thermodynamic parameters ΔH 0 and ΔG 0 revealed that the adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

An admixture of lightweight aggregate substrates (beidellitic clay containing 10 wt % of natural clinoptilolite or Na-P1 zeolite) with used motor oil (1 wt %-8 wt %) caused marked changes in the aggregates' microstructure, measured by a combination of mercury porosimetry (MIP), microtomography (MT), and scanning electron microscopy. Maximum porosity was produced at low (1%-2%) oil concentrations and it dropped at higher concentrations, opposite to the aggregates' bulk density. Average pore radii, measured by MIP, decreased with an increasing oil concentration, whereas larger (MT) pore sizes tended to increase. Fractal dimension, derived from MIP data, changed similarly to the MIP pore radius, while that derived from MT remained unaltered. Solid phase density, measured by helium pycnometry, initially dropped slightly and then increased with the amount of oil added, which was most probably connected to changes in the formation of extremely small closed pores that were not available for He atoms.

This article is focused on lightweight aggregate-concrete modified by municipal sewage sludge and lightweight aggregate-concrete obtained from light aggregates. The article presents laboratory examinations of material physical parameters. Water absorptivity of the examined material was decreased by the admixture of water emulsion of reactive polysiloxanes. Water transport properties were determined using Time Domain Reflectometry, an indirect technique for moisture detection in porous media. Together with basic physical parameters, the heat conductivity coefficient λ was determined for both types of lightweight aggregate-concrete. Analysis of moisture and heat properties of the examined materials confirmed the usefulness of light aggregates supplemented with sewage sludge for prospective production.

This paper presents a comprehensive study on the possibility of sewage sludge management in a sintered ceramic material such as a lightweight aggregate. Made from clay and sludge lightweight aggregates were sintered at two temperatures: 1100 °C (name of sample LWA1) and 1150 °C (name of sample LWA2). Physical and mechanical properties indicate that the resulting expanded clay aggregate containing sludge meets the basic requirements for lightweight aggregates. The presence of sludge supports the swelling of the raw material, thereby causing an increase in the porosity of aggregates. The LWA2 has a lower value of bulk particle density (0.414 g/cm(3)), apparent particle density (0.87 g/cm(3)), and dry particle density (2.59 g/cm(3)) than it is in the case of LWA1 where these parameters were as follows: bulk particle density 0.685 g/cm(3), apparent particle density 1.05 g/cm(3), and dry particle density 2.69 g/cm(3). Water absorption and porosity of LWA1 (WA = 14.4 %, P = 60 %) are lower than the LWA2 (WA = 16.2 % and P = 66 %). This is due to the higher heating temperature of granules which make the waste gases, liberating them from the decomposition of organic sewage sludge. The compressive strength of LWA2 aggregate is 4.64 MPa and for LWA1 is 0.79 MPa. Results of leaching tests of heavy metals from examined aggregates have shown that insoluble metal compounds are placed in silicate and aluminosilicate structure of the starting materials (clays and sludges), whereas soluble substances formed crystalline skeleton of the aggregates. The thermal synthesis of lightweight aggregates from clay and sludge mixture is a waste-free method of their development.

In this paper, we present the possibility of using fly ash to produce synthetic zeolites. The synthesis class F fly ash from the Stalowa Wola SA heat and power plant was subjected to 24 h hydrothermal reaction with sodium hydroxide. Depending on the reaction conditions, three types of synthetic zeolites were formed: Na-X (20 g fly ash, 0.5 dm(3) of 3 mol · dm(-3) NaOH, 75 °C), Na-P1 (20 g fly ash, 0.5 dm(3) of 3 mol · dm(-3) NaOH, 95 °C), and sodalite (20 g fly ash, 0.8 dm(3) of 5 mol · dm(-3) NaOH + 0.4 dm(3) of 3 mol · dm(-3) NaCl, 95 °C). As synthesized materials were characterized to obtain mineral composition (X-ray diffractometry, Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry), adsorption properties (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area, N2 isotherm adsorption/desorption), and ion exchange capacity. The most effective reaction for zeolite preparation was when sodalite was formed and the quantitative content of zeolite from X-ray diffractometry was 90 wt%, compared with 70 wt% for the Na-X and 75 wt% for the Na-P1. Residues from each synthesis reaction were the following: mullite, quartz, and the remains of amorphous aluminosilicate glass. The best zeolitic material as characterized by highest specific surface area was Na-X at almost 166 m(2) · g(-1), while for the Na-P1 and sodalite it was 71 and 33 m(2) · g(-1), respectively. The ion exchange capacity decreased in the following order: Na-X at 1.8 meq · g(-1), Na-P1 at 0.72 meq · g(-1), and sodalite at 0.56 meq · g(-1). The resulting zeolites are competitive for commercially available materials and are used as ion exchangers in industrial wastewater and soil decontamination.