Search

In this paper, CSS’s Christine Eriksen, Florian Roth, Linda Maduz and Tim Prior propose a re-examination of the dynamic relationship between affluence and vulnerability —a complex association defined as the Affluence–Vulnerability Interface (AVI). A more nuanced understanding of the AVI can (1) problematize the notion that increasing material affluence necessarily has a mitigating influence on social vulnerability, (2) extend analysis of social vulnerability beyond low-income regions to include affluent contexts and (3) improve understanding of how psychosocial characteristics influence people’s vulnerability. In diesem Papier schlagen die CSS Forscher Christine Eriksen, Florian Roth, Linda Maduz und Tim Prior eine erneute Untersuchung der dynamischen Beziehung zwischen Wohlstand und Verwundbarkeit vor — eine komplexe Verbindung, die als Affluence-Vulnerability Interface (AVI) definiert wird. Ein nuancierteres Verständnis der AVI kann (1) die Vorstellung problematisieren, dass zunehmender materieller Wohlstand notwendigerweise einen mildernden Einfluss auf die soziale Verwundbarkeit hat, (2) die Analyse der sozialen Verwundbarkeit über einkommensschwache Regionen hinaus auf wohlhabende Kontexte ausdehnen und (3) das Verständnis dafür verbessern, wie psychosoziale Merkmale die Verwundbarkeit von Menschen beeinflussen. ISSN:0165-0009 ISSN:1573-1480

The implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction requires non-traditional management and governance approaches for substantial reduction of disaster losses to occur. Adaptive governance (AG) has been identified as a mechanism through which to fundamentally change the relationship between development and disaster risk, with potentially far-reaching implications for science, policy and practice. At its core are collaboration, multilevel collective action, and continuous learning for building knowledge and effective social-ecological systems (SES) management. This paper presents evidence of AG in the articulation of the Sendai Framework and explores its potential as a ‘non-traditional’ approach to disaster risk reduction (DRR) in tackling the challenges of complex SES and multi-level socioeconomic, cultural and political factors and processes. Taking an AG lens, we analyse the prevalence of AG characteristics and determine which of the Sendai Framework's components would require an AG approach to facilitate a transformative agenda for DRR. We also identify opportunities for employing an AG approach beyond what is already articulated to further enhance disaster resilience and to foster equitable, resilient and sustainable development. Our findings indicate significant references to AG in the Sendai Framework, and we posit that the Sendai Framework could indeed be an important “window of opportunity” for transforming DRR through AG. We conclude by discussing the challenges that must be overcome for AG to provide practical solutions for the urgent transformations required in DRR, and by calling for further research to identify the spaces and pathways through which deliberate transformations might occur.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 shifts the focus from managing disasters to reducing risks. Such a shift requires a better understanding of risk in all its dimensions of environment, hazards, exposure, and vulnerability; a disaster risk governance that ensures disaster risk is factored into planning and development at all levels across all sectors, as well as into disaster pre-paredness, rehabilitation, recovery, and reconstruction; and cost–benefit analyses to support the prioritization of investments in disaster risk reduction (DRR) for long-term resilience.

Most studies of major disasters focus on the impacts of the event and the short-term responses. Some evaluate the underlying causes of vulnerability, but few follow-up events years later to evaluate the consequences of early framings of the recovery process. The objective of this study was to improve understanding of the influence that recovery narratives have had on how decisions and actions are undertaken to recover from a disaster, and what influence this has had in turn, on long-term resilience. The study drew on comparisons and insights from four case studies in Southeast Asia: (1) local innovations that led to new policies for living with floods in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam following the 2001 Mekong River floods; (2) livelihood and infrastructure responses in Prey Veng, Cambodia, after the 2001 and 2011 Mekong River floods; (3) the role of the Panglima Laot, a traditional fisheries management institution, in the recovery process following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Aceh province, Indonesia; and (4) the challenges faced by small and medium enterprises in a market area following the 2011 floods in Bangkok, Thailand. This study identified alternative narratives on the purpose and means of ‘recovery’ with implications for who ultimately benefits and who remains at risk. The study also found both formal and informal loss and damage systems were involved in recoveries. The findings of this study are important for improving the performance of loss and damage systems, both existing and planned, and, ultimately, supporting more climate resilient development that is inclusive.

The 2011 flood was the worst in Thailand in decades. Many of the impacts occurred in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. The floods negatively affected small and medium enterprises (SMEs). One location in which high impacts on SMEs occurred was Bang Bua Thong market in Nonthaburi Province. The aim of this article is to investigate (1) how the 2011 floods affected SMEs in the market, (2) how successfully they have recovered, and (3) what actions they and the state have taken to reduce the vulnerability of SMEs to future floods. We found that the economic health of the market community has deteriorated since 2011 due to the damages caused by the floods, the poor state of the Thai economy, and increased business competition. The poor performance of the mayor during the event significantly contributed to the vulnerability of SMEs. So did the lack of an effective early warning system. Since 2011, the government has only made minor efforts to reduce flood risk. These have focused on building floodwalls to reduce risk to large-scale enterprises, which have redistributed risk to unprotected areas. No changes in land use have occurred, and hence, the drainage capacity of the market has improved little. The study revealed that socioeconomic factors interacted with the 2011 flood to negatively affect SMEs, and that key political economy drivers of vulnerability of SMEs remain unaddressed. The market has not been built back better, and the sociopolitical transformations needed to reduce vulnerability have not occurred.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to advance the dialogue between the disaster risk reduction (DRR) and adaptation community by investigating their differences, similarities and potential synergies. The paper examines how DRR and adaptation can inform development to tackle the underlying drivers of disaster risk. Design/methodology/approach Based on a risk-based approach to the management of climate variability and change, the paper draws from a critical review of the literature on DRR and adaptation. The study finds that known and emerging risk from disasters continues to increase dramatically in many parts of the world, and that climate change is a key driver behind it. The authors also find that underlying causes of social vulnerability are still not adequately addressed in policy or practice. Linking DRR and adaptation is also complicated by different purposes and perspectives, fragmented knowledge, institutions and policy and poor stakeholder coordination. Findings The author’s analysis suggests that future work in DRR and adaptation should put a much greater emphasis on reducing vulnerability to environmental hazards, if there is truly a desire to tackle the underlying drivers of disaster and climate risks. Originality/value This will require coherent political action on DRR and adaptation aimed at addressing faulty development processes that are the main causes of growing vulnerability. The study concludes with a first look on the new Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and how it aims to connect with adaptation and development.

There are increasing calls for transformation to be considered as a means to address the effects of social, cultural and political conditions on vulnerability when resilience is applied in practice. Yet transformation does not necessarily lead to more equitable social conditions. Here, we draw on the analytical framework of political capabilities to reveal aspects of the underlying politics of transformation. Our focus is on the relocation of communities in Tacloban, Philippines following Typhoon Haiyan, as an example of a deliberate transformation enacted as part of an integrated development and disaster risk reduction plan. A household survey, focus group discussions and individual interviews are applied to rank households in terms of their perception of household resilience four years after the disaster. Analysis of the drivers and consequences of differentiation reveals an uneven distribution of resilience among residents, with many facing difficulties despite a focus on livelihoods embedded in the relocation plan. While some were able to leverage pre-existing human and social capital, others found that the shift from coastal livelihoods left them struggling to find a valued role. Relocation reinforced underlying subjectivities with new layers of meaning, reflecting experiences of success and failure in adjusting to a more commercial culture and cash economy. The plan sought improvement through commercial opportunities, reflecting the authority and worldview of dominant city and international stakeholders. While the deliberate transformation that followed sought to be just in the distribution of risk and opportunity, poorer residents lacked the political capability to influence the relocation narrative, which in turn overlooked histories of marginalization and the lived experience of the poor. The case highlights the significance of engaging political capabilities if transformations are to support those in vulnerable communities to make valued life choices.

The aim of this paper is to enhance understanding of how the resilience of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems to hazards can be improved. In turn, this aims to inform different strategies for public and private partnerships (PPPs). In a new approach, to acknowledge the multi levelled nature of resilience; risk at the relevant levels are taken into account, (regional/river basin, urban area, and individual). For these levels, we first describe the different components of risk, vulnerability and resilience of the WASH system that influence people׳s exposure to hazards. We illustrate these components using examples from case studies in the literature. Using a social learning lens - a crucial ingredient of resilience - we examine opportunities for reducing risks through improving public–private engagement. These are presented as strategies which could guide investment decisions: As pressures from climate change and development add up, businesses must become aware of the risks involved in operating and investing without considering ecosystem health, both in terms of the services they provide for mitigating floods and droughts, as well as in terms of the development approaches that define how ecosystems are managed (e.g. “making space” for, rather than controlling water). There is a need to develop an institutional culture that strives towards greener and more resilient urban environments with the help of various quality assurance methods. Partnerships must reach the poorer customer base, encourage informal small entrepreneurs, and boost financial mechanisms (e.g. micro-insurance, micro-finance) to support the most vulnerable in society.

This paper presents research into four key stakeholders in flood risk management in Australia: local councils, the insurance industry, the State Emergency Service (SES), and local residents; examining the perception of their own roles and responsibilities, and those of the other stakeholders. Key informant interviews were conducted in four locations—Brisbane and Emerald, in Queensland, Dora Creek, in New South Wales, and Benalla, in Victoria. We find that understanding of the roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder varied considerably between research participants. Insurance representatives felt their concerns about increasing flood risk costs were unheeded until the 2010–2011 floods made them the “canary in the coal mine”. Councils felt they had limited options for reducing flood risk. SES representatives felt they were too relied upon for event response, with requests for assistance outstripping their capacity to assist, and many residents were uncertain how to prepare for flood, relying on emergency agencies and the local council to protect them. Key lessons for flood risk management in Australia are (a) an urgent need for all stakeholders to better understand each others’ roles and responsibilities; and (b) residents must take greater responsibility for their own personal protection. Only then can the vision of shared responsibility presented by the 2009 National Strategy for Disaster Resilience be achieved.

The challenge of reaching common understanding of the processes and significance of environmental change amounts to a procedural vulnerability in climate change research that hinders successfully translating knowledge into equitable and effective adaptation policy. This article presents findings from research with Indigenous participants in West Arnhem, Australia, and identifies a procedural vulnerability to climate change research, where perceptions of change and their meaning have their context in Dreaming that supersedes and parallels Western scientific discourses of hazard and risk, but that are marginalised in studies and policies on climate change. This paper argues that moves to adapt remote Indigenous Australian communities to climate change risk missing the mark if they (a) assume that a strong reliance on particular ecosystem configurations makes Indigenous cultures universally vulnerable to environmental change, (b) do not recognise cosmologically embedded risks that are determined by Indigenous capacity to take care of country, and (c) do not recognise colonisation as an ongoing disaster in Indigenous Nations, and therefore treat secondary disasters such as poverty, ill health and welfare dependence as primary contributors to high climate change vulnerability. Procedural vulnerabilities contribute to policy failure, and in Australian contexts pose a risk of conceiving solutions to climate change vulnerability that involve moving people out of the way of environmental risks as they are conceived within colonial traditions, while moving them into the way of risks as conceived through the eyes of remote Indigenous communities. This research joins recent publications that encourage researchers and policy-makers to epistemologically ground proof risk assessments and to listen and engage in conversations that create ways of ‘seeing with both eyes’, while not being blind to the hazards of colonisation.

This chapter presents an examination of the role of the Panglima Laot (translation: sea commander) customary institution in the recovery of fisheries communities in Aceh following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, as well as the roles and relationships of other actors from the perspective of the Panglima Laot local leaders and institution. The roles of the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency (BRR) of Aceh-Nias, the local government and international and local non-governmental organizations (NGO) are also analyzed in order to understand the broader recovery process, the interactions between these different stakeholders, and the types of loss and damage systems relevant to coastal fishing communities affected by the tsunami.

Indonesia is amongst the countries with the highest disaster risk globally. This risk is driven by the country’s high exposure to a range of geophysical and hydro-meteorological hazards, combined with grave vulnerabilities resulting from population growth, unequal economic development, urbanization, a lack of social and environmental considerations within development processes, and other drivers. Disasters caused by environmental hazards are becoming increasingly costly and severe in Indonesia. While efforts to manage disaster impacts and reduce disaster risk have long been considered, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami transformed the way disasters are viewed and how the risks are managed and reduced. Internationally, the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters was adopted in 2005 and succeeded by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. In order to document the transformations that have taken place in disaster risk reduction (DRR) in Indonesia, this book presents the progress, challenges and issues concerned with DRR governance and practices. It aims to answer the following questions: Which advances in DRR have been made? Which roles do different actors have? Which remaining challenges and emerging new issues need to be addressed in order to enable more sustainable DRR in Indonesia? This introduction presents the rationale, objective and structure of the book.

Widespread flooding across eastern Australia between November 2010 and February 2011 has again highlighted the country's susceptibility to natural disasters. The floods have also triggered discussion about flood awareness, risk information, and the role and responsibility of governments, insurance providers and residents. This paper examines the availability of flood hazard information on local government websites in Australia; it was completed in mid-2010 before the 2010–2011 flooding. The quality and accessibility of information is discussed, as are variations based on state and population size of different Local Government Areas (councils). Particular attention is given to those areas that experienced recent flooding, as well as to known areas of concentrated risk. There are large gaps in information availability, with less than 50% of councils provided flood risk information. A higher percentage of councils in the more populous states, some of which also have higher flood risk, provide inform...

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine how past experiences in implementing disaster risk reduction (DRR) activities can be harnessed to conceptualise effective and appropriate climate change adaptation (CCA) programs in Indonesia. The authors propose a conceptual framework for integrating DRR and CCA in managing climate‐related risks and explain the need for joint implementation.Design/methodology/approachThe study is conducted through review and analysis of academic, government and non‐government literature to determine the Indonesian experience in integrating DRR and CCA. Interviews were conducted with 26 DRR and CCA stakeholders in Indonesia.FindingsThe authors make three propositions in this paper. First, there needs to be a re‐orientation of the institutional arrangements for DRR and CCA, to increase the effectiveness of planning and implementation. Second, DRR and CCA activities needed to be stronger supported at the local level, with a specific aim to reduce the underlying causes of vulnerability of communities at risk. Third, non‐government organisations play a very important role in integrating DRR and CCA through community‐based initiatives.Research limitations/implicationsWhile this paper focuses specifically on Indonesia, the findings are relevant to other countries with similar geographical and socio‐economic conditions, as they are likely to face similar challenges.Practical implicationsThe paper provides practical suggestions on what steps government actors, at all political levels, can do to support the integration of DRR and CCA planning and implementation activities in Indonesia.Originality/valueThe paper is one of the first to document progress in integrating DRR and CCA in Indonesia.

Over the last 50 years, the cost of natural disasters has increased globally and in Indonesia (EM-DAT 2012). We therefore need more systematic efforts in trying to reduce disaster risks. In 2005, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction created the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015: ‘Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities’, in order to enable a more systematic planning, implementation and evaluation of disaster risk reduction (DRR) activities. In this paper, we examine Indonesia’s success in improving DRR by reviewing the country’s progress in implementing the HFA Priorities for Actions. This includes an analysis of the drivers, challenges and emerging issues in building resilience to natural hazards. The study is undertaken through literature reviews and interviews with 26 representatives of key organisations in DRR and climate change adaptation (CCA) in Indonesia. Our findings indicate that the building disaster resilience in Indonesia has been, to a large extent, driven by the existence of the necessary regulatory policies and frameworks and the participation of various non-government stakeholders. Impediments to process include a lack of capacity and capability for DRR at the local government level, a lack of systematic learning and a lack of commitment from government to mainstream DRR into broader development agendas. Emerging pressing issues that are likely to challenge future resilience building activities include the integration of DRR and CCA and urban risk governance.

The increasing frequency, intensity, and severity of natural hazards is one of the most pressing global environmental change problems. From the local to the global level, governments and civil society need to increase resilience to these hazards. Despite what is now a very sizeable literature on designing governance systems to produce resilience, a substantial gap in the natural hazards scholarship remains because most studies have lacked grounding in comparable theories on governing for resilience. This article contributes to interdisciplinary research on the conceptual understanding of the interlinkages of adaptive governance (AG), resilience, and disaster risk reduction (DRR). Through better understanding of diversity of terminology, terms, and characteristics, we take a step forward towards mutual learning and intellectual experimentation between the three concepts. Our review shows that there are four characteristics of AG that are important to help increase resilience to natural hazards. These are polycentric and multilayered institutions, participation and collaboration, self-organization and networks, and learning and innovation. The article examines the development, tradeoffs, and benefits that arise from the implementation of the AG characteristics, and reviews their influence on resilience. Hazard and disaster case studies are then examined to see how each AG characteristic is viewed and implemented in disaster contexts. Based on this analysis, the contributions of AG to the DRR literature are identified, before outlining the implications for theory and further research.

China has experienced considerable migration from inland to coastal areas since the reforms of 1978, with migrants becoming an important population in many coastal cities. Compared with non-migrants (long-term residents), migrant vulnerability to typhoons is considered high due to limited access to job opportunities, social security, information, and other resources; however, there is no research on vulnerability of this population sector to natural hazards. This initial study analysed the perceptions and personal experiences of migrants living in Shanghai of typhoon hazards. During May 2010, empirical data were collected using an online questionnaire and face–face interviews. Response data indicated that risk knowledge of migrants was significantly lower than among non- migrants; differing risk perceptions between the groups were consistent with levels of personal typhoon experience; statistically significant differences in hazard knowledge within the sample also related to education and occupation; a variety of strategies to cope with typhoon hazards was being applied by residential committees; and that migrants were not generally recognised as a vulnerable group requiring special consideration in hazard risk management. To reduce the vulnerability of migrants to typhoons, we recommend expanding the range of accessible communication technologies distributing warning information; organising more educational and training programmes, at government and corporate level, to increase community awareness of natural hazards; encouraging local residential committees to promote social networks and engagement for migrants; and providing corporate incentives to develop insurances specifically for migrant needs. Further research is necessary to assess the differences in vulnerability between different types of migrants.

This paper discusses insights from post-tsunami early warning system (EWS) development in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Indonesia by analysing selected elements of resilience, based on the Coastal Community Resilience (CCR) framework, and by distinguishing between the cognitive, normative and procedural dimensions of EWSs. The findings indicate that (1) recent calls to develop participatory and people-centred EWSs as promoted by the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005—2015 have not been sufficiently translated into action in the implementation of national policies and strategies for early warning; (2) policy and guidance places significantly more emphasis on the procedural compared to the normative and cognitive dimensions of EWSs; (3) practitioners engaged in early warning and disaster risk reduction operate in contexts shaped by multiple stakeholder agendas and face considerable challenges in negotiating diverse needs and priorities; and (4) few platforms currently exist that enable stakeholders to coordinate and...

This article focuses on the complex relationship between development and disaster risk. Development and disaster risk are closely linked as the people and assets exposed to risk, as well as their vulnerability and capacity, are largely determined by development processes. Transformation is key to moving from current development patterns that increase, create or unfairly distribute risks, to forms of development that are equitable, resilient and sustainable. Based on a review of existing literature, we present three opportunities that have the potential to lead to transformation in the development-disaster risk relationship: (i) exposing development-disaster risk trade-offs in development policy and decision-making; (ii) prioritizing equity and social justice in approaches to secure resilience; and (iii) enabling transformation through adaptive governance. This research aims to contribute to breaking down existing barriers in research, policy and practice between the disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and development communities by providing cross-sectoral opportunities to operationalize theoretical knowledge on transformation. It also helps to clarify the connections between different global agendas by positioning transformation as a potential bridging concept to link disconnected policy processes. This paper argues for empirical research to test the opportunities presented here and further define transformative pathways at multiple scales.

Over the past few decades, four distinct and largely independent research and policy communities—disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, environmental management and poverty reduction—have been actively engaged in reducing socio-economic vulnerability to natural hazards. However, despite the significant efforts of these communities, the vulnerability of many individuals and communities to natural hazards continues to increase considerably. In particular, it is hydrometeorological hazards that affect an increasing number of people and cause increasingly large economic losses. Arising from the realisation that these four communities have been largely working in isolation and enjoyed only limited success in reducing vulnerability, there is an emerging perceived need to strengthen significantly collaboration and to facilitate learning and information exchange between them. This article examines key communalities and differences between the climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction communities, and proposes three exercises that would help to structure a multi-community dialogue and learning process.

Imagine that a cyclone is coming, but that those living in the affected areas do nothing or too little to protect themselves. This is precisely what happened in the coastal state of Orissa, India. Individuals and communities living in regions where natural hazards are a part of daily life develop strategies to cope with and adapt to the impacts of extreme events. In October 1999, a cyclone killed 10,000 people according to government statistics, however, the unofficial death toll is much higher. This article examines why such a large loss of life occurred and looks at measures taken since then to initiate comprehensive disaster-preparedness programmes and to construct more cyclone shelters. The role of both governmental organisations and NGOs in this is critically analysed. The good news is that, based on an assessment of disaster preparedness during a small cyclone in November 2002, it can be seen that at community-level awareness was high and that many of the lessons learnt in 1999 were put into practice. Less positive, however, is the finding that at the state level collaboration continues to be problematic.

This paper examines the applicability of several empirical relationships for the performance of shore-parallel breakwaters at Sea Palling in Norfolk, UK. The research presented here compliments the work of Axe et al. (1996), who applied the models of Pope and Dean (1986), Suh and Dalrymple (1987), Ahrens and Cox (1990) and McCormick (1993) and compared their predictions with observations of beach response to the Elmer offshore breakwater scheme in West Sussex, UK. When these models were applied to the Sea Palling breakwaters, they generally revealed large inconsistencies in the predicted beach response. It is suspected that the inability of these methods to correctly predict beach response at this location is most likely caused by the overriding influence of factors such as wave transmission, longshore drift and a large tidal range, over geometrical relationships in the scheme design.

The effects of four offshore breakwaters built between 1993 and 1995 at Sea Palling, Norfolk, UK, on beach morphology are discussed. The structures were built during the first phase of a multi-phase construction programme and are expected to provide long-term protection for Sea Palling and 6000 ha of low-lying land against tidal inundation through the provision of a wide beach in front of the existing seawall and dunes. The results presented here span all stages of breakwater construction during Phase 1. Beach level changes were monitored during the period from 1995 to 1999. A Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to calculate differential surfaces between surveys in order to investigate local patterns of accretion and erosion and to determine volume changes between consecutive surveys. Additional data collected by the Environment Agency since 1991 were analysed to investigate beach and bathymetry changes prior to the construction of the breakwaters. In association with periodic nourishment programmes the scheme has been locally successful in retaining recharged sediment on the beach but the extent of the salients prevents to a great extent the south-eastward littoral drift. As a result, effects on the beaches, both down- and up-drift of the breakwaters, have been considerable. The continuing increase in beach volume indicated that by January 1999 equilibrium had not been reached.

Resilience is widely seen as a desirable system property in environmental management. This paper explores the concept of resilience to natural hazards, using weather-related hazards in coastal megacities as an example. The paper draws on the wide literature on megacities, coastal hazards, hazard risk reduction strategies, and resilience within environmental management. Some analysts define resilience as a system attribute, whilst others use it as an umbrella concept for a range of system attributes deemed desirable. These umbrella concepts have not been made operational to support planning or management. It is recommended that resilience only be used in a restricted sense to describe specific system attributes concerning (i) the amount of disturbance a system can absorb and still remain within the same state or domain of attraction and (ii) the degree to which the system is capable of self-organisation. The concept of adaptive capacity, which has emerged in the context of climate change, can then be adopted as the umbrella concept, where resilience will be one factor influencing adaptive capacity. This improvement to conceptual clarity would foster much-needed communication between the natural hazards and the climate change communities and, more importantly, offers greater potential in application, especially when attempting to move away from disaster recovery to hazard prediction, disaster prevention, and preparedness.

The resilience concept requires greater attention to human livelihoods if it is to address the limits to adaptation strategies and the development needs of the planet's poorest and most vulnerable people. Although the concept of resilience is increasingly informing research and policy, its transfer from ecological theory to social systems leads to weak engagement with normative, social and political dimensions of climate change adaptation. A livelihood perspective helps to strengthen resilience thinking by placing greater emphasis on human needs and their agency, empowerment and human rights, and considering adaptive livelihood systems in the context of wider transformational changes.

This chapter presents physical and social challenges that cities face, and adaptation planning case studies prepared for the Adapting to Climate Change in Cities Session at the International Climate Adaptation Futures Conference. The goal was to explore risk assessment, differential approaches to adaptation planning, and mitigation and adaptation interactions in cities. Challenges and opportunities across a spectrum of urban developmental conditions were explored. These ranged from the regional studies of the Dutch province of Groningen, to nationally important cities to small municipalities in Australia. Findings from the research presented are discussed here, organised along the two key themes of urban risk (Tunis, Toronto, and Australian coastal cities), and adaptation planning (five developing country cities, Dutch Eemsdelta, and Australian local governments). In conclusion, emerging issues from these city case studies and interactive roles of mitigation and adaptation are articulated. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The world is experiencing more frequent, deadly and costly disasters. Disasters are increasingly uncertain and complex due to rapid environmental and socio-economic changes occurring at multiple scales. Understanding the causes and impacts of disasters requires comprehensive, systematic and multi-disciplinary analysis. This paper introduces recent multidisciplinary work on resilience, disaster risk reduction (DRR), climate change adaptation (CCA) and adaptive governance and then proposes a new and innovative framework for adaptive and integrated disaster resilience (AIDR). AIDR is defined as the ability of nations and communities to build resilience in an integrated manner and strengthen mechanisms to build system adaptiveness. AIDR provides the ability to face complexities and uncertainties by designing institutional processes that function across sectors and scales, to engage multiple stakeholders and to promote social learning. Based on the review of existing academic and non-academic literature, we identify seven pathways to achieve AIDR. These pathways are a conceptual tool to support scholars, policy makers and practitioners to better integrate existing DRR strategies with CCA and more general development concerns. They describe institutional strategies that are aimed at dealing with complexities and uncertainties by integrating DRR, CCA and development; strengthening polycentric governance; fostering collaborations; improving knowledge and information; enabling institutional learning; self-organisation and networking; and provision of disaster risk finance and insurance. We also examine the implications of these pathways for Indonesia, one of the most vulnerable countries to natural hazards and climate change impacts. Our findings suggest that there is an urgent need to commit more resources to and strengthen multi-stakeholder collaboration at the local level. We also argue for placing the community at the centre of an integrated and adaptive approach to DRR and CCA.

Many climate change adaptation efforts aim to address the implications of potential changes in the frequency, intensity, and duration of weather and climate events that affect the risk of extreme impacts on human society. That risk is determined not only by the climate and weather events (the hazards) but also by the exposure and vulnerability to these hazards. Therefore, effective adaptation and disaster risk management strategies and practices also depend on a rigorous understanding of the dimensions of exposure and vulnerability, as well as a proper assessment of changes in those dimensions. This chapter aims to provide that understanding and assessment, by further detailing the determinants of risk as presented in Chapter 1. The first sections of this chapter elucidate the concepts that are needed to define and understand risk, and show that risk originates from a combination of social processes and their interaction with the environment (Sections 2.2 and 2.3), and highlight the role of coping and adaptive capacities (Section 2.4). The following section (2.5) describes the different dimensions of vulnerability and exposure as well as trends therein. Given that exposure and vulnerability are highly context-specific, this section is by definition limited to a general overview (a more quantitative perspective on trends is provided in Chapter 4). A methodological discussion (Section 2.6) of approaches to identify and assess risk provides indications of how the dimensions of exposure and vulnerability can be explored in specific contexts, such as adaptation planning, and the central role of risk perception and risk communication. The chapter concludes with a cross-cutting discussion of risk accumulation and the nature of disasters.

In this paper, we aim to investigate how local communities cope with and adapt to multiple stresses in rural semiarid South Africa. In semiarid regions water scarcity is one of a number of stresses that shape livelihood vulnerability. With climate change, it is predicted that rainfall in South Africa will become more uncertain and variable in the future, exposing more people to water insecurity. At the same time, the impacts of disease, a lack of institutional capacity, and limited livelihood opportunities can combine to limit adaptive capacity. Therefore, adaptation to changing climate should not be viewed in isolation but instead in the context of social, economic, and political conditions, all of which shape local community vulnerability and people's ability to cope with and adapt to change. This study uses a qualitative-quantitative-qualitative framework, including the use of a stated preference survey, to identify the drivers of agroecosystem change, to understand the capacity of households to cope with droughts, and to determine the ability of local institutions to respond to crises. The analysis suggests that the capacity of the agroecosystem to remain productive during droughts is decreasing, individual/household adaptive capacity remains low, and institutional capacity faces considerable barriers that prevent it from supporting households to adapt to multiple stresses. This research adds weight to the claim that vulnerability reflects multiple forces and processes, and that multiple stresses, that are agroecological, socioeconomic, and institutional in nature, need to be examined to understand vulnerability and to prevent maladaptation.

In current scientific efforts to harness complementarity between resilience and vulnerability theory, one response is an ‘epistemological shift’ towards an evolutionary, learning based conception of the ‘systems-actor’ relation in social–ecological systems. In this paper, we contribute to this movement regarding the conception of stakeholder agency within social–ecological systems. We examine primary evidence from the governance of post-disaster recovery and disaster risk reduction efforts in Thailand's coastal tourism-dependent communities following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Through an emerging storyline from stakeholders, we construct a new framework for conceptualising stakeholder agency in social–ecological systems, which positions the notion of resilience within a conception of governance as a negotiated normative process. We conclude that if resilience theory is proposed as the preferred approach by which disaster risk reduction is framed and implemented, it needs to acknowledge much more explicitly the role of stakeholder agency and the processes through which legitimate visions of resilience are generated

Learning to build resilient coastal communities : Post-tsunami recovery in Sri Lanka and Indonesia

Drawing on a systematic review of coastal hazard vulnerability in Southeast Asia, an analysis of emerging post-disaster vulnerabilities in Sri Lanka and Indonesia after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, and a global consultative process and expert analysis of the human dimensions of vulnerability to global environmental change that included an analysis of coastal urbanization and climate change, this paper aims to summarise key findings on the state of knowledge of the causal factors contributing to social vulnerability to coastal hazards and the relevance of current research for practitioners and policymakers. Whilst the scientific understanding of the increasingly complex and interacting socio-economic and environmental processes contributing to vulnerability has improved considerably during the last decades, important challenges remain in translating these insights into operational assessment methodologies for practitioners and tools for decision-makers to develop effective management strategies and policies to reduce vulnerability and build resilience against environmental risks. The results of this analysis indicate an urgent need to develop and apply approaches that focus more strongly on the needs of those affected by disasters and to create processes that enable better communication and learning between researchers, practitioners and policymakers.

Human health and wellbeing are closely linked to the health and resilience of ecosystems. When natural disasters occur in situations where natural resources have been severely degraded, it is much more diffi cult for communities to recover and for people to re-establish their lives. By examining lessons from the December 2004 tsunami, it is possible to identify the important role healthy coastal and marine ecosystems played in buff ering immediate impacts and protecting human lives, and the longer-term benefi ts gained for human health and livelihoods from sustainable use of natural resources (see Bowen et al., this issue). Whilst the role resilient ecosystems played in reducing the severe humanitarian impacts of such a powerful phenomenon should not be exaggerated (especially in Sumatra, Indonesia where wave height and force was very high; see Keim et al., this issue), the potential of healthy ecosystems to hasten the recovery of communities is clearly evident.

Climate change is increasingly acknowledged to be one of the most important current global challenges. Thus societies and communities vulnerable to climate change urgently need approaches and methods to assess and design strategies for building resilience. A number of reviews of the resilience concept and its applicability in reducing disaster risks and uncertain impacts arising from climate change exist. This paper aims to contribute to the understanding of resilience through the systematic review and analysis of existing resilience definitions and frameworks, and the documentation of ‘on-the-ground’ experiences from resilience building initiatives in the context of natural hazards. We contend that a comprehensive and effective disaster resilience framework needs to incorporate fundamental elements of sustainable development, disaster risk reduction and community engagement. In addition, it needs to go beyond the specification of concrete outcomes to describing the process by which the initial resilience status can be identified, and the goals for each element can be established. Conceptualising resilience building as a process is important to enable the monitoring and evaluation of progress towards desired goals. Five of 13 reviewed frameworks include these two important aspects: Climate Resilient Cities of the World Bank, Hyogo Framework for Action of UN/ISDR, Coastal Community Resilience of US/IOTWS, Community and Safety Resilience of IFRC and Characteristics of Disaster Resilient Community of DFID.

This chapter provides the historical trends and impact of disasters and the status of disaster risk in Southeast Asia. It discusses the importance of reducing that risk by tackling the underlying drivers of exposure and vulnerability generated inside development as well as pursuing equitable outcomes in resilience processes. Significant risk reduction in the region could be achieved by transforming developmental processes that have historically created risk toward processes driven by equity, resilience and sustainability. Disaster risk varies greatly across Southeast Asia due to the geographical, environmental, climatological, social, economic and political diversity of the region. The implementation of various economic growth and development policies across the region has greatly contributed to reductions in poverty levels in several countries, but not necessarily to reducing levels of inequality. The intense and unsustainable use of natural resources and degradation of vital ecosystems, especially in catchment and coastal areas, is a significant disaster risk driver in Southeast Asia.

Human settlements along coasts and estuaries are increasingly at risk from flooding due to a combination of inappropriate development, rising sea level, insufficient investment in the maintenance of flood defences, and the interaction of rising sea levels with storm surges. This paper describes the development of a dynamical storm surge and inundation model in combination with an analysis of residence vulnerability for two case study sites along the English east coast to investigate the consequences for residential areas of a major sea defence failure. The model is developed to provide detailed information about floodwater depths and velocities that can be expected for different storm conditions and defence failure scenarios. At the same time, failure in residences due to floodwater loading is examined by investigating load characteristics along with damage and failure load parameters for a range of residences. Drawing on historical accounts, field surveys and insurance loss data, those features of residential buildings which govern the structure's vulnerability to flood damage are identified. The examination of the impact of floodwater forces represents a new approach to damage assessment and enables a more accurate prediction of potential losses, both for the case study sites and for larger spatial scales. With this knowledge, sustainable risk management strategies are developed.

Resilience and vulnerability represent two related yet different approaches to understanding the response of systems and actors to change; to shocks and surprises, as well as slow creeping changes. Their respective origins in ecological and social theory largely explain the continuing differences in approach to social-ecological dimensions of change. However, there are many areas of strong convergence. This paper explores the emerging linkages and complementarities between the concepts of resilience and vulnerability to identify areas of synergy. We do this with regard to theory, methodology, and application. The paper seeks to go beyond just recognizing the complementarities between the two approaches to demonstrate how researchers are actively engaging with each field to coproduce new knowledge, and to suggest promising areas of complementarity that are likely to further research and action in the field.