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Several models which remain equivocal and controversial cite migration and/or diffusion for the emergence and spread of pastoralism and farming in southern Africa during the first millennium AD. A synthesis of archaeobotanical proxies (e.g., palynology, phytoliths, anthracology) consistent with existing archaeobotanical and archaeological data leads to new insights into anthropogenic impacts in palaeorecords. Harnessing such archaeobotanical evidence is viable for tracing the spread of pastoralism and farming in the first millennium AD because the impact of anthropogenic practices is likely to result in distinct patterns of vegetation change. We assess this impact through the synthesis of published archaeobotanical evidence of pastoralism and farming, as well as vegetation changes in southern Africa during the first millennium AD. It has been argued that the decline of forests during the first millennium AD in southern Africa predominantly relates to climate change. This argument often precludes anthropogenic effects on vegetation. Our reassessment of the relationship between vegetation, climate, and human activities in southern Africa reveals evidence of human impact during the same period. We also highlight gaps in the current knowledge of early pastoralism and farming and potential future research directions. We hypothesize that the pattern exhibited by the decline of forest tree pollen, coupled with the increase of open-land indicators, the occurrence of pioneer trees, as well as the spores of coprophilous fungi, and possible changes in the fire regime are reflective of, and consistent with, anthropogenic activities of pre-European pastoralists and farmers.

In melissopalynological studies, the investigation of pollen composition in honey samples reveals the geographical and botanical origin of the samples and links them to the regional climatic conditions. Honeybees (Apis mellifera), collect pollen and nectar for their nutritional requirements based on the seasonal availability of surrounding flora. In this study, pollen content in honey was temporarily investigated for seasonal differences of the bee foraged plants. A melissopalynological investigation was applied to honey samples harvested from 13 beehives located in the Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa. Multivariate statistics (NMDS and Rarefaction curves) were used to show spatial and temporal clustering of the samples. The melissopalynological data were then compared to the species’ flowering season and a botanical survey of the surrounding area. The turnover in pollen composition for different seasons signifies seasonal variation in pollen types. For example, during summer, bees foraged from fewer floral sources. The highest species richness was observed during winter, suggesting a higher dependence on a diversity of floral resources during the driest months. Various seasonal pollen spectra were characterised by a pollen turnover from numerous species, including Combretum type, Sclerocarya birrea, Poaceae, Harpephyllum caffrum and Lannea schweinfurthii but also neophytes such as Medicago sativa. Therefore, honey samples from the Lowveld region in South Africa reflected the seasonal patterns of the surrounding flora although pollen from taxa such as Combretum spp. (average 56%) and Sclerocarya birrea (average 14%) were continuously sought after by bees throughout the year.

We have reassessed the palynological record of Equus Cave in the Savanna Biome of the southern Kalahari, one of the longest Late Quaternary pollen records for the semi-arid central interior of South Africa. We combined published pollen results from the cave, derived from hyena coprolites and the rubified deposits in which they occur, into a single sequence. By re-considering the chronology of this sequence, we critically evaluated the palaeoenvironmental record for the site. We compared the pollen evidence from Equus Cave to that from the longer Wonderwerk Cave records (stalagmite, sediments and dung), also located in the Savanna Biome. Then, we contrasted Equus and Wonderwerk records with other previously published pollen sequences derived from a range of sources from several sites in central South Africa. These sites follow a broad northwest to southeast transect of c. 500 km through the Grassland and Nama Karoo Biomes of the Free State and Eastern Cape. Applying Principal Components Analysis to the pollen data, we derived climatic signals at a regional scale to refine reconstructions of Late Quaternary changes for central South Africa., LS was supported by the National Research foundation (South Africa) (NRF Grant no. 85903). The Leakey Foundation (USA) and the National Science Foundation (USA) respectively supported CBB’s work at Baden-Baden and Blydefontein. LS appreciates Juan Ochando Tomas’ collaboration relating to hyena coprolites in Project CGL-PID2019-1049449GB-I00 (FEDER/Ministry of Science and Innovation, Spain).

Pollen and fungal spores (aerospora) are major atmospheric bioaerosols for pollen allergy sufferers. Aerospora types and concentration vary seasonally, depending upon the flowering period and meteorological factors which are variable in different geographical regions. The aim of this study was to analyze a two-year record of aerospora from two locations (Epe and Ojo) in Lagos (Nigeria), from May 2014 to April 2016. Aerospora were monitored with a modified Tauber sampler. The residual solution was harvested monthly throughout the duration of the study and acetolyzed, and microscopic slides were prepared. Aerospora were analyzed with light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM studies were applied to reach a higher level of pollen identification. A plant enumeration was carried out in the surroundings of the sampling sites. The aerobiological study revealed seasonal distribution patterns of various aerospora. The highest total pollen counts for 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 were recorded in April–July for both sites while minima occurred in January–December. Pollen of Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cyperaceae was dominant. Other taxa include Borreria sp., Elaeis guineensis, Amaranthus sp., Tridax procumbens. Fungal spores showed a high recovery for the months April–August for Epe in 2014–2015 and 2015–2016. In Ojo, fungal spores were high in July–August for 2014–2015 and in April–August for 2015–2016. Common fungal spores include those of Alternaria, Nigrospora, and Curvularia. The relationship between the aerospora spectra and the vegetation at the study locations was qualitatively investigated. There is a need to further test the allergenicity of pollen of common plants in Nigeria to inform pollen-hypersensitive individuals.

Waterfall Bluff is a rock shelter in eastern Pondoland, South Africa, adjacent to a narrow continental shelf that limited coastline movements across glacial/interglacial cycles. The archaeological deposits are characterized by well-preserved stratigraphy, faunal, and botanical remains alongside abundant stone artifacts and other materials. A comprehensive dating protocol consisting of 5 optically stimulated luminescence ages and 51 accelerator mass spectrometry14C ages shows that the record of hunter-gatherer occupations at Waterfall Bluff persisted from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene, spanning the last glacial maximum and the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene. Here, we provide detailed descriptions about the sedimentary sequence, chronology, and characteristics of the archaeological deposits at Waterfall Bluff. Remains of marine mollusks and marine fish also show, for the first time, that coastal foraging was a component of some hunter-gatherer groups’ subsistence practices during glacial phases in the late Pleistocene. The presence of marine fish and shellfish further demonstrates that hunter-gatherers selectively targeted coastal resources from intertidal and estuarine habitats. Our results therefore underscore the idea that Pondoland's coastline remained a stable and predictable point on the landscape over the last glacial/interglacial transition being well positioned for hunter-gatherers to access resources from the nearby coastline, narrow continental shelf, and inland areas.

The scientific contributions of E.M. van Zinderen Bakker (1907–2002) included the introduction of pollen analysis to Quaternary studies in South Africa. His palaeoecological theories evolved while performing palynological research in Southern Africa (the Maluti Mountains, Florisbad, Aliwal North, the Namib Desert), East Africa (Kalambo Falls, Mount Kenya, Cherangani Hills) and on the subantarctic islands (Marion and Prince Edward Islands). He was involved in the first radiocarbon dating from South Africa at Florisbad. Due to quantitative palynological studies he abandoned Wayland's (1929) Pluvial Theory that was generally accepted in the 1960s. He correlated observations of climate changes in Africa to data from marine borehole-cores and climatic fluctuations in the Northern Hemisphere. His observations led to the proposal that global temperature fluctuations are the primary cause of palaeoenvironmental changes. His studies culminated in a conceptual paleoecological model for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Initially he based the model on symmetrical contraction of climatic belts about the equator that shifted the mid-latitude westerly wind system northward to increase the area receiving winter rainfall but later adjusted this by proposing a mechanism of westerly wind system intensification. He suggested that at this time grasslands had spread over wider areas in Southern Africa and that the tropical rain forests in the equatorial region fragmented. For interglacial periods he suggested that a southward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) resulted in widespread humidity in the Congo Basin while large areas of the interior of Southern Africa became arid. Some of his ideas, especially his conceptual models of Quaternary vegetation and climate, are still relevant to the explanation of recent discoveries.

An investigation of the vegetation and climate from the Middle Pleistocene until the end of the Late Pleistocene reveals a plethora of terrestrial and marine biological, geological and archaeological evidence for marked and complex climate cycles of change, which reflect on past circulation patterns. While acknowledging the usefulness of diverse proxies for detecting these changes, an efficient way to summarize past events is to focus on one of them, viz. fossil pollen, which, although providing scattered and incomplete records, gives fairly direct reflections of past climates and vegetation growth. The findings are structured according to six subregions and reveal distinct changes in temperature and moisture patterns, e.g. during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Younger Dryas. The data suggest an environmental background against which cultural evolution took place, e.g., the appearance of Fauresmith, Still Bay, Howiesons Poort and Later Stone Age lithic industries. The pollen archives can be associated with global climate changes, as recorded in isotopes in marine sequences (Marine Isotope Stages or MISs). The observations show differences between regions, which can serve as a base for improving palaeo-data to eventually simulate past and future climates and to better understand the role of past global climates in relation to human and animal occupation in Southern Africa.

Pollen and fungal spores (aerospora) are the major atmospheric bioaerosols. Aerospora occurrence and concentration vary by geographical region and blossoming period, and with meteorological factors. Allergic respiratory diseases affect about 20 million South Africans, with pollen and fungal allergens amongst the leading triggers. Asthma triggered by aerospora can be life threatening; allergic rhinitis causes considerable morbidity and carries financial implications for individuals and health systems. Thus, knowledge about geographical variation, seasonal timing and intensity, as well as annual aerospora fluctuations in South Africa, where climate and vegetation are exceptionally diverse, is essential for effective diagnosis and treatment of allergies. Unfortunately, there is a lack of continuous aeropalynological data from South Africa. The longest annual monitoring exists for Cape Town (~20 years), with almost no data out of the Cape since the 1990s, and many parts of South Africa have never been monitored. In this brief review, we highlight the cross-disciplinary need for strengthened and expanded continuous aeropalynological study in South Africa, the history of efforts to date, and the introduction of the interdisciplinary South African Pollen Network (SAPNET). SAPNET was launched in seven major cities in August 2019 in order to monitor weekly variations of aerospora, and provide online data for allergy sufferers and health-care providers (www.pollencount.co.za) with the aim to establish regional pollen calendars. Significance: The significance of aerobiology as the study of airborne organic particles which include pollen, spores of fungi and cryptogams, plant hair, insect remains etc. especially as agents of allergic rhinitis (commonly known as hay fever) is outlined. Cases of allergic rhinitis are globally increasing due to current climate change. Very limited pollen monitoring data are available for South Africa; such data are a prerequisite for establishing pollen calendars to help medical practitioners and allergy sufferers. SAPNET (South African Pollen Network) addresses this lack of data. Since August 2019, seven 7-day volumetric spore traps have been operating in South Africa in major cities, and are continuously gathering data about the pollen and spore contents in a country which is highly affected by allergic rhinitis.

An ongoing re-investigation of the early Miocene Saldanha Bay (South Africa) palynoflora, using combined light and scanning electron microscopy (single grain method), is revealing several pollen types new to the African fossil record. One of the elements identified is Loranthaceae pollen. These grains represent the first and only fossil record of Loranthaceae in Africa. The fossil pollen grains resemble those produced by the core Lorantheae and are comparable to recent Asian as well as some African taxa/lineages. Molecular and fossil signals indicate that Loranthaceae dispersed into Africa via Asia sometime during the Eocene. The present host range of African Loranthaceae and the composition of the palynoflora suggest that the fossil had a range of potential host taxa to parasitise during the early Miocene in the Saldanha Bay region.

Mpondoland on the South African east coast is a particularly dynamic region in terms of climate change as it is influenced by both temperate and tropical circulation and climate systems. We present a sediment record that indicates regional climatic change and anthropogenic influence during the last ∼5500 yr. Catchment data allow an understanding of signal transmission from the catchment to the site of the marine core. Plant-wax isotope distributions and elemental composition, as well as palynological, burned phytolith and micro-charcoal data, are used to infer paleoclimatic shifts and reconstruct past human activity. Whereas previous studies have often disregarded early anthropogenic drivers of environmental change, our study provides palynological evidence of human impacts and geochemical evidence of increased erosion starting as early as ∼1500 years ago. Downcore proxy analysis suggests that particularly humid conditions persisted from ∼900 to ∼300 cal yr BP, encompassing both the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age. We suggest that humidity during the Medieval Climate Anomaly was sourced from a poleward shift of the Southern Hemispheric Westerlies and the South African high-pressure cell, allowing for the southward expansion of the Southern Indian Ocean Convergence Zone. During the Little Ice Age, the equatorward movement of the Southern Hemispheric Westerlies probably brought increased rainfall to areas that are normally beyond the northern limit of the Southern Hemispheric Westerlies. Comparison of our record to available regional archives of centennial-scale late Holocene climate variability in South Africa demonstrates that Mpondoland is located at a transition zone of tropical and sub-tropical climatic influences.

A multi-proxy study of an offshore core in Saldanha Bay (South Africa) provides new insights into fluvial deposition, ecosystems, phytogeography and sea-level history during the late Paleogene-early Neogene. Offshore seismic data reveal bedrock topography, and provide evidence of relative sea levels as low as − 100 m during the Oligocene. 3D landscape reconstruction reveals hills, plains and an anastomosing river system. A Chattian or early Miocene age for the sediments is inferred from dinoflagellate taxa Distatodinium craterum, Chiropteridium lobospinosum, Homotryblium plectilum and Impagidinium paradoxum. The subtropical forest revealed by palynology includes lianas and vines, evergreen trees, palms and ferns, implying higher water availability than today, probably reduced seasonal drought and stronger summer rainfall. From topography, sedimentology and palynology we reconstruct Podocarpaceae-dominated forests, Proto-Fynbos, and swamp/riparian forests with palms and other angiosperms. Rhizophoraceae present the first South African evidence of Palaeogene/Neogene mangroves. Subtropical woodland-thicket with Combretaceae and Brachystegia (Peregrinipollis nigericus) probably developed on coastal plains. Some of the last remaining Gondwana elements on the sub-continent, e.g., Araucariaceae, are recorded. Charred particles signal fires prior to the onset of summer dry climate at the Cape. Marine and terrestrial palynomorphs, together with organic and inorganic geochemical proxy data, suggest a gradual glacio-eustatic transgression. The data shed light on Southern Hemisphere biogeography and regional climatic conditions at the Palaeogene-Neogene transition. The proliferation of the vegetation is partly ascribed to changes in South Atlantic oceanographic circulation, linked to the closure of the Central American Seaway and the onset of the Benguela Current ~ 14 Ma.

An archaeological site is an integral part of its surrounding landscape. This is one of the main novel approaches in the long-term archaeological project of Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath. The site has interact...

Waterfall Bluff, in Eastern Mpondoland (Eastern Cape Province, South Africa), is a recently excavated archaeological site with deposits spanning Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 to the Middle Holocene. Here, we present preliminary results of a multi-proxy palaeoenvironmental study combining macro-botanical remains, charcoal, phytoliths, pollen and plant waxes derived from the same archaeological record. We aim to understand the interactions between hunter-gatherer plant foraging and climate and environmental change in coastal Mpondoland from MIS 3 to the Early Holocene at Waterfall Bluff. The charcoal and pollen records at Waterfall Bluff show the gathering of a variety of woody taxa characterised by their combustion and medicinal properties (e.g., Millettia grandis and Apodytes dimidiate). The leaves identified in the macrobotanics and in the phytolith record might belong to some of these taxa and it is likely that they were used for medicinal purposes. From a palaeoenvironmental perspective, our results indicate low precipitation and low rainfall seasonality under cool conditions during MIS 3 and the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Under these conditions, open woodlands interspersed with dry and hygrophilous grasslands and bushveld vegetation with significant representation of fynbos elements occurred in the local landscapes probably along Podocarpus/Afrocarpus forests. The latter could have been (1) present along river valleys and scarps on the Mpondoland exposed continental shelf towards the south and west of Waterfall Bluff, supported by palaeo-rivers and cool temperatures favouring low evapotranspiration, or (2) present in the interior with pollen grains possibly transported to the site by intensified westerly winds. These forests contracted as a result of the post-glacial marine transgression or reduced westerlies following the LGM. During the Early Holocene, the palaeoenvironmental signal points to higher summer rainfall and higher (summer) seasonality than during MIS 3, the LGM and the LGIT. These changes are coeval with an increase of coastal forests and C4 mesic grasslands with localized wetland vegetation around Waterfall Bluff. These multi-proxy archaeobotanical and biochemical data show that landscapes surrounding Waterfall Bluff changed in relation to marine transgressions/regressions and changes in rainfall intensity and seasonality. The people of Waterfall Bluff foraged the coasts during glacial periods to collect wood.

Few long-term climate and environmental records are available for southeast Africa where millennial scale shifts in the north-south position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and changes in Indian Ocean sea surface temperatures interact with local controls (e.g., fire, hydrology) to influence vegetation and ecosystem dynamics. Reconstruction of late-Pleistocene – Holocene environmental change from peat sediments obtained from Mount Gorongosa, central Mozambique, provides insight into vegetation, climate and disturbance interactions over the past c. 27 kyr. During the late Pleistocene, cool and wet climatic conditions supported Podocarpus forest and Ericaceae-heathland until drier conditions led to grassland expansion and a hiatus in peat deposition between c. 22.5 and 7.2 cal kBP. Increased temperatures and fire activity since c. 7.2 cal kBP led to further expansion of grasslands. Continued warming helped maintain grasslands and fostered a diverse mix of Podocarpus forest with a large number of subtropical trees and miombo woodland taxa (especially Brachystegia spp.) until regional land-use associated with the rise of Iron Age activity promoted an increase of disturbance related taxa over the last 1–2 millennia. Recent migration of people onto the Mount Gorongosa massif in the last fifty years are linked to an increase in fire activity that is unprecedented in the 27 kyr record, resulting in shifts in vegetation composition and structure. This long-term record of environmental change from central Mozambique highlights complex interaction between overlapping climatic influences and documents important vegetation transitions linked to millennial scale climatic controls, disturbance processes and more recent land-use change from a region where few records exist.

Far’ah II is an open-air site in the north western Negev desert (Israel). Previous excavations in the 1970’s revealed a rich, in situ Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblage composed of flint and limestone artifacts, animal bones and charcoal. Renewed excavation at the site were undertaken in 2017, to re-date it and provide a more accurate constrain to the sites’ age, as well as collect samples for paleoclimatic proxies. Our new Optically Stimulated Luminescence and 14C ages together with the stable oxygen isotope signature of the loess sediments, constrain the age of the upper archaeological horizon to

We conducted the first dynamic downscaling of Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate over southern Africa using a regional climate model. Eight coupled global climate model (CGCM) projections of LGM climate were downscaled to 8 km resolution, and compared to a downscaling of present-day climate. It is projected that temperatures were significantly lower during the LGM compared to the present-day, with annual average temperatures 4–6 °C lower along the eastern escarpment, south-north aligned Cape Fold Mountains and western escarpment. Southern Africa is projected to have been generally wetter during the LGM, with a significant extension in the northward reach of frontal rainfall. The largest rainfall increases are projected for the south-north aligned Cape Fold Mountains and the western escarpment of South Africa, but with rainfall decreases projected for the Cape south coast region. Rainfall seasonality is projected to have been significantly different from that of the present-day, with an all-year rainfall region plausibly extending as far north and east as the present-day Free State and Gauteng provinces of South Africa. Evaluations of the downscalings against key published proxy records for the LGM from southern Africa suggest good agreement and few deviations.

Long-term trends in climate, hydrology and geomorphology contributed to the formation of the current biomes of southern Africa. The Neogene terrestrial fossil record is patchy, due to the geomorphological evolution of the subcontinent and the restricted distribution of suitable sediment deposits. Here we review the hypotheses on the evolution of the topography and environment and concentrate on the fossil record, especially pollen, wood, charcoal, leaves and biomarkers. Tectonic studies suggest a lower relief landscape than at present at the onset of the Neogene. Southern Africa was drained by two river systems – the Kalahari and the Karoo Rivers – and was affected by an initially weak, cool Benguela current along the western coastline, gradually promoting an aridity trend along the southwestern coast. The Cape region during the Miocene, when the Great Escarpment began to evolve, was characterised by humid, subtropical forests not unlike those still occurring on the much wetter subtropical eastern shore o...

The history of lake-level changes at the Dead Sea during the Holocene was determined mainly by radiocarbon dating of terrestrial organic debris. This article reviews the various studies that have been devoted over the past 2 decades to defining the Dead Sea levels during the Bronze and Iron Ages (~5.5 to 2.5 ka cal BP) and adds new data and interpretation. In particular, we focus on research efforts devoted to refining the chronology of the sedimentary sequence in the Ze’elim Gully, a key site of paleoclimate investigation in the European Research Council project titled Reconstructing Ancient Israel. The Bronze and Iron Ages are characterized by significant changes in human culture, reflected in archaeological records in which sharp settlement oscillations over relatively short periods of time are evident. During the Early Bronze, Intermediate Bronze, Middle Bronze, and Late Bronze Ages, the Dead Sea saw significant level fluctuations, reaching in the Middle Bronze an elevation of ~370 m below mean sea level (bmsl), and declining in the Late Bronze to below 414 m bmsl. At the end of the Late Bronze Age and upon the transition to the Iron Age, the lake recovered slightly and rose to ~408 m bmsl. This recovery reflected the resumption of freshwater activity in the Judean Hills, which was likely accompanied by more favorable hydrological-environmental conditions that seem to have facilitated the wave of Iron Age settlement in the region. DOI: 10.2458/azu_rc.57.18560

This article presents the role of climate fluctuations in shaping southern Levantine human history from 3600 to 600 BCE (the Bronze and Iron Ages) as evidenced in palynological studies. This time interval is critical in the history of the region; it includes two phases of rise and decline of urban life, organization of the first territorial kingdoms, and domination of the area by great Ancient Near Eastern empires. The study is based on a comparison of several fossil pollen records that span a north-south transect of 220 km along the southern Levant: Birkat Ram in the northern Golan Heights, Sea of Galilee, and Ein Feshkha and Ze’elim Gully both on the western shore of the Dead Sea. The vegetation history and its climatic implications are as follows: during the Early Bronze Age I (~3600–3000 BCE) climate conditions were wet; a minor reduction in humidity was documented during the Early Bronze Age II–III (~3000–2500 BCE). The Intermediate Bronze Age (~2500–1950 BCE) was characterized by moderate climate conditions, however, since ~2000 BCE and during the Middle Bronze Age I (~1950–1750 BCE) drier climate conditions were prevalent, while the Middle Bronze Age II–III (~1750–1550 BCE) was comparably wet. Humid conditions continued in the early phases of the Late Bronze Age, while towards the end of the period and down to ~1100 BCE the area features the driest climate conditions in the timespan reported here; this observation is based on the dramatic decrease in arboreal vegetation. During the period of ~1100–750 BCE, which covers most of the Iron Age I (~1150–950 BCE) and the Iron Age IIA (~950–780 BCE), an increase in Mediterranean trees was documented, representing wetter climate conditions, which followed the severe dry phase of the end of the Late Bronze Age. The decrease in arboreal percentages, which characterize the Iron Age IIB (~780–680 BCE) and Iron Age IIC (~680–586 BCE), could have been caused by anthropogenic activity and/or might have derived from slightly drier climate conditions. Variations in the distribution of cultivated olive trees along the different periods resulted from human preference and/or changes in the available moisture. DOI: 10.2458/azu_rc.57.18555

A multi-proxy study of a sediment sequence from Braamhoek wetland, covering the last c. 16,000 years, reveals a record of regional climate and vegetation dynamics in the Drakensberg region, South Africa, including signals from both the organic sediment fraction (fossil pollen, charcoal, n-alkane abundance, n-alkane δ13C, TOC) and the inorganic fraction (mineral magnetic properties). The reconstruction, supported by a robust chronology, indicates two major periods of increased regional wetness during the late Pleistocene to early Holocene phase (c. 13,800–12,600 cal yr BP; c. 10,200–8500 cal yr BP) and one during the late Holocene (c. 2000 cal yr BP to present). Drier conditions are recorded during the Younger Dryas (c. 12,600–11,300 cal yr BP) and mid-Holocene (c. 7000–2000 cal yr BP). A major decline in fynbos vegetation during the early Holocene suggests a shift towards warmer temperatures and possibly towards less pronounced winter rains in eastern South Africa from c. 8500 cal yr BP. Comparison with records from interior of South Africa show relatively high inter-site variability, however, the Braamhoek moisture proxies do co-vary with the speleothem isotope records from Makapansgat, suggesting a similar hydro-climate evolution in eastern and interior parts of the summer rainfall region during the studied period. On multi-millennial time scales, an inverse hydro-climatological pattern is evident between these two South African records and reconstructions from tropical locations in southeast Africa. Such a rainfall dipole between eastern tropical and southern Africa, has previously been identified on shorter time scales, i.e. on inter-annual to millennial scales. The Braamhoek study suggests that a similar dipole pattern is acting also on a multi-millennial perspective. These long-term precipitation anomalies are tentatively coupled to teleconnections from multi-millennial changes in the dynamics of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

When applying high-resolution microscopy, the pollen morphology of extant taxa can be used to classify fossil pollen, that is, to address the latter in the established systematic-phylogenetic framework. Here we investigate tetrads and pollen features of 20 different Winteraceae species, most of them belonging to the early-diverging generic lineagesTasmannia,DrimysandPseudowintera. The tetrads and pollen are grouped into eleven pollen types based on diagnostic features observed by both light and scanning electron microscopy. The high-resolution scanning electron micrographs of recent material allow detailed comparison with fossil material, resulting in a more accurate affiliation of fossil tetrads/pollen to extant lineages. As a case study, early Miocene Winteraceae tetrads from South Africa are re-examined and formally described. The systematic placement of the African fossils is discussed in light of the pollen types presented here.

A detailed pollen record for the time interval of ∼2500–500 BCE, which covers the time period of the Intermediate Bronze Age (Early Bronze Age IV) into the Iron Ages in the Levant, is presented. The study was conducted in the Ze’elim Gully, which drains the southern Judean Highlands into the Dead Sea. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the Judean Highlands exhibited dramatic settlement fluctuations. To better understand these oscillations, high-resolution fossil pollen data were combined with a recent pollen data set, lithological features, radiocarbon dating and palaeohydrological information derived from the Dead Sea levels. Due to the occurrence of hiatuses in this fluvial environment, we used a composite profile which was based on two palynological-sedimentological profiles. This integrated information enabled us to reconstruct in great detail for the first time the environmental conditions in relation to the picture derived from archaeological field-work in the Judean Highlands. Evidence for drier clim...

A radiocarbon dated pollen and microscopic charred particle record from the Holocene section of the Tswaing Crater in the Savanna Biome of South Africa give new evidence for environmental changes during the period c. 9400–1800 cal years BP. Pollen grains are scarce or absent in layers dating from before 9400 cal years BP but deposits rich in pollen occur in overlying layers. The section dated between 9400 cal years BP and c. 7200 cal years BP contains grass, Asteraceae and dry savanna pollen types that suggest fluctuating but generally dry moisture conditions. Later between c. 7200 and 1800 cal years BP, broad leaved savanna woodland elements and local swamp pollen indicate relatively stable vegetation and wetter mildly fluctuating climatic conditions, which is consistent with previously published biomarker analysis. Between c. 6200 and 5500 cal years BP, the numbers of charred particles increased slightly. This indicates burning activity, which can probably be attributed to dry season ignition of denser fuel under relatively moist conditions. A decrease of local swamp pollen between c. 3600 and 3500 cal years BP suggests that conditions became briefly drier again as pollen of woody elements declined in favour of open grassland pollen. A comparison between the Tswaing pollen profile and various other sequences within the central interior of South Africa suggests generally similar conditions over the central interior of the sub-continent during the Holocene deviating from sequences further afield along the coastal areas of southern Africa. Between 9400 cal years BP and ca. 7200 cal years BP, the western and southern coasts were probably controlled by different atmospheric and oceanic circulation regimes under the influence of a strong westerly winter–rain system while the north-eastern area where, Tswaing is situated, experienced weaker precession and less summer rain from the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

A palynological and sedimentological record from the Mahwaqa Mountain in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, provides evidence of the vegetation dynamics in this part of the Grassland Biome during the last c. 18,000 years. The wetland is located at 1,850 m on an isolated outlier of the Ukhahlamba–Drakensberg Mountain range on an ecotone along a climatic gradient. The vegetation responded to humidity and temperature changes during the late Pleistocene and Holocene. The period c. 18,000–13,500 cal. bp is characterized by high Ericaceae and Restionaceae percentages and decreasing values of charred particles, indicating cool conditions. Around 13,500–8,500 cal. bp, Ericaceae were gradually replaced by Poaceae, signaling climate warming. Growing environmental wetness during the same time period is inferred from Phragmites-type and Cliffortia pollen percentages. Since c. 8,500 cal. bp, Cliffortia, Restionaceae, and Phragmites-type percentages have maintained low levels. Ericaceae were almost completely replaced by grasses and Asteraceae by c. 7,500 cal. bp. All indications are that warm and fluctuating moisture conditions followed until 4,600 cal. bp but they became driest between c. 4,600 and 3,500 cal. bp, when high Asteraceae, Pentzia-type and Scabiosa percentages were prominent. From c. 3,500–800 cal. bp, the increase of sedges, Aponogeton and grass pollen (including Phragmites-type) at the expense of Asteraceae pollen suggests the return of slightly more humid conditions. Since c. 1,000 cal. bp an increase of water demanding Podocarpus and Cliffortia occurred. Pine pollen indicates the recent introduction of alien plants in the 19th and 20th centuries.

An article in the special issue "Quantification of human–environment interactions in the past" comprising 8 articles (plus the introduction). This special issue is a contribution to PAGES' Focus 4 (human–climate–ecosystem interactions) theme and specifically the Land Use and Cover Soil and Sediment and Water Themes which ran up until 2014. The volume emerged from the PAGES supported meeting: ‘Towards a more accurate quantification of human–environment interactions in the past’ held in Leuven Belgium from 3–7 February 2014. ABSTRACT: Mediterranean landscapes have been characterized by the ongoing interaction between natural processes and anthropogenic activities over several thousands of years. However separating the relative contributions of these two factors in shaping the landscape has proved to be difficult. With reference to three excavated probes located in the environs of the archaeological site of Tell es Safi/Gath (central Israel) we outline a methodological approach that may aid in distinguishing between the impact of natural and anthropogenic agencies on the accumulation of sediment fills. We conclude that at Tell es Safi/Gath natural geomorphic processes were the major factors that shaped the landscape but anthropogenic activity is expressed in a brief period of time as evidenced by a high sedimentation rate combined with high d13C values a relatively high quantity of phytoliths and a high concentration of charred particles. This anthropogenic signature is interpreted as resulting from the destruction of the site by Hazael King of Aram Damascus (ca. late 9th century BCE). This research demonstrates how high resolution multi disciplinary sampling of probes for dating C isotopic composition phytolith characterization pollen analysis and assessment of sedimentation rates in combination with the study of human cultural history at an archaeological site may facilitate the distinction between natural and anthropogenic causes of sedimentation.

Preliminary archaeological and palynological results are presented from an early Byzantine cistern of the village Horvat Kur in eastern Lower Galilee/Israel. The rural site was settled from the Hellenistic until the Early Arab period, its synagogue was constructed shortly after 425 AD and renovated sometimes during the 2nd half of the 6th century AD. It was abandoned probably as a consequence of the earthquake of 749 AD. The intact and properly sealed cistern contained complete or fully restorable pottery. Two cooking pots from the early 5th century AD comprised sediments which was sampled for palynological purposes. Both samples, as well as a sample from the soil beneath one of the pots and a modern surface sample from the site, revealed well preserved palynomorphs in comparably high concentration showing a great potential of the cistern as a pollen archive. The pollen content points to an open, grassy semiarid landscape with an apparent scarcity of cultivars and trees in the vicinity of the site and an abundance of herbs, especially Asteraceae, which are still commonly found in modern regional vegetation.

The late Holocene history of the South African summer rainfall zone offers insights into the effects of climate on ecosystems and human societies, as well as into the accuracy of model projections of the future. However, some important aspects of this region's climatic history remain unresolved. Here we present new high-resolution diatom records representing hydrological fluctuations at Lake Sibaya, KwaZulu-Natal, during the last 1800 years. The cores were dated with 14 C, 210 Pb, 137 Cs, and exotic pollen, and were sampled at increments of 1–22 years. A low stand ending ∼AD 150 was followed by additional decadal to century-scale droughts, most notably ∼AD 1540–1760, and several periods of markedly wetter conditions ∼AD 220–290, AD 790–830, AD 1470–1540, and AD 1760–1860. The Medieval Climate Anomaly was generally wetter than average and the Little Ice Age was generally drier, but hydroclimate during both intervals was highly variable. These records confirm that local tree ring and stalagmite gray scale series represent rainfall variability, but they also show that widely cited stable isotope series from Makapansgat do not represent past climate as clearly. Because many interpretations of the climatic history of southern Africa have been influenced by those isotope data, we re-examine late Holocene precipitation variability in the summer rainfall zone, and also address model projections of future precipitation in the region.

Fragments of cephalothecoid fructifications (peridia) were encountered during palynological investigations of Neogene deposits in Mizerna-Nowa/Poland and Adendorf/Germany. Isolated plates of cephalothecoid ascoma in shape and cellular structure similar to the extant members of the family Cephalothecaceae are described as Cephalothecoidomyces neogenicus fossil gen. et sp. nov. while remnants of fungal sporocarps with cephalothecoid walls with indistinct lines of dehiscence, similar in structure to peridia with cephalothecoid morphology of extant representatives the family Chaetomiaceae (mainly genus Chaetomidium) are assigned to Adendorfia miocenica fossil gen. et sp. nov. We also propose a new interpretation of some previously described fossil fungal taxa that we consider to be remnants of cephalothecoid ascomata.

The narrow transform margin of southeast Africa and its associated sedimentological and hydrodynamic setting differs to other documented continental margins. The Durban Bluff continental shelf is extremely narrow and steep (8 km wide with a gradient ranging from 2 to 8°) characterised by a wave- and oceanic current-dominated regime. Seismic Sequence Boundary 2, developed during the Last Interglacial regression, spans the entire shelf separating the Holocene sediment wedge (Seismic Unit H) from underlying Pleistocene deposits. A wave ravinement surface marks the Holocene transgression, comprising a pavement lag of well sorted gravels and bioclastics overlain by inshore reef-derived carbonate rich sediments and offshore by quartzose mid-shelf sands. The shelf sands represent the transgressive Holocene to modern sediment wedge forming a seaward thinning unit stacked against the Pleistocene Blood Reef aeolianite/beachrock substrate. The sediment wedge is dynamic and constantly redistributed by currents associated with the Durban Eddy inshore of the Agulhas Current and bottom surge associated with high swells and marine storm events. These have been instrumental in shaping large-scale shoreface attached and detached sand ridges. The presence of mud lenses in the vicinity of Blood Reef represents deposition from turbid flood waters with preservation facilitated by the morphology of the Durban Bluff and Blood Reef. Palynological results, reflecting the local subtropical vegetation and recently introduced neophytes, together with radiocarbon dates, provide a very recent age for this sediment supporting a terrestrial origin and deposition from a single large flood event.

The Dead Sea, located at the deepest place on continent and between the subtropical Mediterranean zone and the desert, reflects in its water composition and levels, and sedimentary records the hydrological conditions in the southern Levant region. Temporal variations in rainfall and temperatures of the Holocene Levant are reconstructed here from pollen data recovered from a sediment core drilled at the Ein Gedi shore, applying a novel biome model based on Bayesian statistics. Our results suggest that the region was arid and warm in the early Holocene period (∼10–6.5 ka cal BP), wetter and colder in the mid Holocene (6.3–3.3 ka cal BP), and drier and warmer in the late Holocene (∼3.2 ka cal BP to present). These periods comprise multi-centennial climate cycles that are characterized by rapid changes in temperature and precipitation reflecting Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and atmospheric conditions over the Atlantic Ocean. The pollen record responds within a short time interval to the climate conditions and marks rapid shifts from Mediterranean to desert environmental conditions and back in the southern Levant region. We also evaluate our results in the light of possible disturbances of the natural vegetation, e.g. the possibility of forest decrease, since the Neolithic.

The austral westerlies strongly influence precipitation and ocean circulation in the southern temperate zone, with important consequences for cultures and ecosystems. Global climate models anticipate poleward retreat of the austral westerlies with future warming, but the available paleoclimate records that might test these models have been limited to South America and New Zealand, are not fully consistent with each other and may be complicated by influences from other climatic factors. Here we present the first high-resolution diatom and sedimentological records from the winter rainfall region of South Africa, representing precipitation in the equatorward margin of the westerly wind belt during the last 1400 yr. Inferred rainfall was relatively high ∼1400–1200 cal yr BP, decreased until ∼950 cal yr BP, and rose notably through the Little Ice Age with pulses centred on ∼600, 530, 470, 330, 200, 90, and 20 cal yr BP. Synchronous fluctuations in Antarctic ice core chemistry strongly suggest that these variations were linked to changes in the westerlies. Equatorward drift of the westerlies during the wet periods may have influenced Atlantic meridional overturning circulation by restricting marine flow around the tip of Africa. Apparent inconsistencies among some aspects of records from South America, New Zealand and South Africa warn against the simplistic application of single records to the Southern Hemisphere as a whole. Nonetheless, these findings in general do support model projections of increasing aridity in the austral winter rainfall zones with future warming.

In order to define criteria for long-term climate change models in Southern Africa, an overview of the available pollen data during the Late Quaternary is needed. Here we reassess the paleo-climatic conditions in southern Africa by synthesising available fossil pollen data that can provide new insights in environmental change processes. The data considered here include the latest as well as previously published information that has been difficult to assess. Available calibrated pollen sequences spanning the Late Pleistocene and Holocene were subjected to Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to monitor taxa sensitive to moisture and temperature fluctuations. The PCA values are presented graphically as indicators of climate variability for the region. The results cover different biomes that include the summer-rain region in the north and east, the winter-rain area in the south and the dry zone in the west. The PCA plots directly reflect major changes of terrestrial environments due to variations in temperature and moisture. Mostly sub-humid but fluctuating conditions are indicated during the cold Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2, which were followed by a dry phase soon after the beginning of the Holocene but before the middle Holocene in the northern, central and eastern parts of the sub-continent. Marked but non-parallel moisture changes occurred in different subregions during the Holocene suggesting that climatic forcing was not uniform over the entire region. Some events seemed to have had a more uniform effect over the sub-continent, e.g., a relatively dry summer rain event at c. two thousand years ago, which can possibly be related to the ENSO phenomenon. The role of anthropogenic activities in some of the most recent vegetation shifts is likely.

Pollen analysis of a core in Princess Vlei in the Fynbos Biome near Cape Town gives a 4150 year record of vegetation and climate changes followed by disturbance by colonial settlers since c. 300 years ago. Their impact replaced climate as a major factor in changing the vegetation. The chronology is based on eight radiocarbon dates. Pollen types such as Restionaceae, Ericaceae, and Proteaceae reflect changes in fynbos. Pollen indicators at the bottom of the core suggest drier conditions followed by an increase in Morella, Cyperaceae and Carpacoce pollen, which might indicate moist conditions c. 3400–2600 cal. yr BP. Drier conditions prevail c. 2600–1900 cal. yr BP. Apparent light disturbance after c. 2000 cal. yr BP might be attributed to Khoi herders. Deeper water and damp surroundings are indicated c. 1900–1000 cal. yr BP. The top of the core shows an increase of Poaceae while Restionaceae decrease with anthropogenic disturbance, including the introduction of neophytes such as Pinus ( c. 300 years ago) and Zea mays. Charcoal percentages point to intense fires after the arrival of the Europeans. Water between 105 and 75 cm indicates the development of a floating mat resulting from changes in the hydrological system possibly connected to disturbances by settlers.

This study documents a multi-proxy palaeoecological record spanning 2000 years for the northern KwaZulu-Natal coastal plain. Data are presented from cores recovered from Lake Sibaya and the northernmost coastal flats of the Kosi lake system. Sedimentation rates are higher in the dated Sibaya core than in the Kosi core. Carbon isotopic values from all three cores suggest that C3 plants have been the dominant biomass, with some C4 plant input at certain depths/times in the cores. Low nitrogen isotopic data in the cores suggest that nitrogen fixation processes occur in both systems. Due to high sample distance and often low pollen concentration, palynological data are restricted to a single core at Lake Sibaya. The pollen assemblages reflecting changes from greater forest abundances to greater savanna grassland abundances support results from a previous palynological study at the lake. The relative proportion of carbon in the samples decreases during the same time frame, potentially reflecting a decline in b...

Palynological and sedimentological data from a core extracted from Lake Eteza shed new light on the Holocene vegetation and climate history in KwaZulu-Natal and can be linked to regional and global climate change. A 2072 cm core with nineteen radiocarbon dates and chronological extrapolation to the bottom of the sequence suggests that sedimentation started ca. 10 200 cal yrs BP. Between ca. 10 200 and 6800 cal yrs BP pollen indicators point to a change from intermediately humid conditions to comparatively drier grassy environments. This is in good agreement with Sea Surface Temperature (SST) fluctuations from a core in the Mozambique Channel which influence precipitation in coastal KwaZulu-Natal, and the beginning of the Holocene Thermal Maximum ca. 10 500 cal yrs BP. The lower section of the core corresponds to gradually increasing Holocene sea levels along the coast and development of freshwater or estuarine conditions at Lake Eteza. The middle Holocene (ca. 6800–3600 cal yrs BP), when the sea level reached its highest stand and SST peak, indicate humid climatic conditions that favoured an increase of forest trees, e.g. Podocarpus , and undergrowth plants like Issoglossa . As a consequence of higher precipitation and increase of the water table, conditions were favourable for the spread of mangrove, swamp and possibly riverine forest. During the late Holocene after ca. 3600 cal yrs BP a decrease of Podocarpus and other trees as well as an increase of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae, grasses and Phoenix coincide with a return to lower sea levels and drier conditions. The decrease of all trees including Phoenix at ca. 700 cal yrs BP, accompanied by rapid sedimentation rates, possibly reflect forest clearing and upland erosion induced by activities of Iron Age settlers. A dry period at the globally recognized onset of the Little Ice Age might have contributed to these changes. Late Iron Age settlers have probably already introduced Zea mays , which was detected in the profile since ca. 210 BP. The appearance of neophytes like Pinus , Casuarina and pollen of Ambrosia -type in the youngest sediments indicates increased disturbance of European settlements and land use since ca. 100 cal yrs BP.

This study represents the vegetation history of the last 3500 years and conducts an analysis of the climatic fluctuations on a 75 km long transect on the western Dead Sea shore. Palynological and sedimentological data are available from six cores near Mount Sedom, Ein Boqueq, and Ein Gedi and from outcrops near Ze'elim and Ein Feshkha. The comparison of the pollen data with the lake levels shows synchronous trends. During the Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and Hellenistic to Byzantine Period the high lake level of the Dead Sea signals an increase in precipitation. Contemporaneously, values of cultivated plants indicate an increase in agriculture. Lake level is low during the Late Bronze Age, within the Iron Age and at the end of the Byzantine period, indicating dry periods when all pds show a decrease of cultivated plants. Forest regeneration led by drought-resistant pines is observed in all pollen diagrams (pds) following the agricultural decline in the Byzantine period and, in the pds near Ein Boqeq, Ze'elim and Ein Feshkha, during the late Iron Age. The modern vegetation gradient is reflected in the palaeo-records: a stronger expansion of Mediterranean vegetation and cultivated plants in the northern sites is recognisable.

Pollen morphology and sporoderm ultrastructure of modern Neurada procumbens L. and Grielum humifusum E.Mey. ex Harv. et Sond. were studied using light (LM) and electron (SEM and TEM) microscopy. Additionally late Holocene pollen of the Grielum -type was studied using LM. Systematic and ecological aspects have been discussed for the family Neuradaceae. The pollen grains of the studied species are characterized by similarities in size, shape, aperture type and differences in exine sculpture (reticulate semitectate exine in Neurada and finely reticulate to foveolate in Grielum ) and sporoderm ultrastructure. The cavea in the exine is situated between the ectexine and endexine which are connected near the aperture region only. A combination of the palynological characters of the Neuradaceae (semitectate exine, rather loose columellae, interrupted foot layer, the cavea in the exine) increases the pollen plasticity, allowing considerable changes of the pollen grain volume but still remains insufficient to survive sharp fluctuations in hydration level.

The palynology of two overlapping Holocene cores from Lake Sibaya in KwaZulu-Natal elucidates the relationship between climate, vegetation and human impact in the region. By means of twenty-one AMS 14 C dates, loss on ignition, and palynological results we established a composite profile. Pollen assemblages include elements of swamp forest (e.g. Rauvolfia , Macaranga ), dune forest (e.g. Mimusops ), mangrove vegetation ( Bruguiera ), palmveld (e.g. Phoenix ) and bushveld (e.g. Spirostachys , Sclerocarya ). Poaceae, aquatics and Cyperaceae are abundant, and fynbos elements like Ericaceae and Restionaceae are rare. Based on comparisons between palynological and archaeological/historical data, the radiocarbon dates seem to show an age error of 50–550 yr, which is probably due to a hardwater reservoir effect. Applying the mean of this error range to our age model suggests that the oldest sediments represent ~ 6750–7100 cal yr BP, that a > 5000 yr hiatus occurs ca. 253 cm depth, and that the upper 253 cm of the composite profile covers the period between ~ 1300–1500 cal yr BP (~ 450–650 AD, Early Iron Age), and 2004 AD. The Middle Holocene is characterized by high tree pollen values (especially Phoenix ) suggesting warm humid conditions. The Early Iron Age is characterized by high Podocarpus percentages that indicate moist but possibly cooler climatic conditions. The upper part of the pollen sequence is characterized by the decrease of Podocarpus , Isoglossa and Celtis and a rise in Spirostachys . Increasing values of cereal pollen and algae might reflect human activity. Zea mays appears ~ 150–300 cal yr BP in the pollen sequence according to the radiocarbon chronology and both archaeological and historical evidence. The curve of Pinus pollen rises to 50–70% at the top of the diagram, reflecting the spread of pine plantations since the 1920's, and Poaceae values decrease. Stoebe and the introduction of neophytes like Ambrosia and Casuarina suggest recent human disturbance.

Palynological and sedimentological studies were performed at two Holocene profiles in erosion gullies (Ze’elim and Ein Feshkha) which dissect the retreating western shore of the Dead Sea. The aim of the project was to analyse possible links between climate, lithology, and vegetation development. The section in Ze’elim shows both lacustrine and fluvial sediments, whereas sedimentation at Ein Feshkha is predominantly lacustrine. The Ze’elim profile, previously used for paleo-lake reconstruction provides an opportunity to compare climate triggered lake levels as paleo-hydrological indicators and vegetation history by use of palynology. The vegetation development in Ze’elim and Ein Feshkha is influenced by both climate and human impact. The pollen record of Ze’elim begins in the Pottery Neolithic, the section of Ein Feshkha in the Late Bronze Age, both records end in the Middle Ages. The Ze’elim section is characterized by sedimentary hiati between the beginning of the Chalcolithic Period until the Middle Bronze Age and within the Late Bronze Age. Settlement periods during the Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and Hellenistic–Roman–Byzantine Period are indicated by high values of anthropogenic indicators and/or Mediterranean trees. Collapses of agriculture, which can be related to climate effects, are evident during the Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age and at the end of the Byzantine Period when the lake level curve indicates arid conditions. A comparison of the two pollen records, from different environments, illustrates a more prominent influence of Mediterranean vegetation and cultivated plants in the pollen diagram of Ein Feshkha. The southern Dead Sea region (at the desert fringe) is more vulnerable to regional climate change.

Coprolites are often used in African archaeological sites as archives for proxies like pollen, which are trapped and preserved inside them. Investigating pollen taphonomy, here we aim to aid interpretations of local and regional vegetation changes by assessing dietary and other pollen sources of fresh hyaena scats from the Tswalu Kalahari Reserve (TKR, South Africa) and coprolites from Equus Cave (South Africa). Our hypothesis is that the inner and outer fractions of coprolites possibly reflect qualitative and quantitative differences of dispersal factors of pollen taxa during the stages of scat formation influenced by hyaena behaviour and pollen sticking to wet surfaces after defecation. We mechanically separated the inner and outer sections of each scat and coprolite and extracted pollen from both fractions for analyses. The results were associated with vegetation maps of TKR and compared with pollen in modern soils, as controls, and quantitatively analysed in order to test potential differences in quality and richness of pollen between the inner and outer parts of samples. Scats and coprolites seem to be less biased sensors of vegetation than surface soil samples. Further, the inner parts of coprolites and scats provide significantly greater diversity of low pollen-producers including entomophilous types than the outer sections which may typically be biased by wind-transported types and less productive due to pollen loss by weathering. The core fraction might therefore be useful for representing the under-represented taxa in pollen assemblages from the surroundings where hyenas roam. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd., We are indebted to Duncan MacFadyen and the Tswalu Kalahari Reserve for logistic support. This research was made possible through an agreement between the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology and the NRF, South Africa (HS2007-0018/UID65233). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions are those of the authors and the NRF does not accept any liability in regard thereto. Graciela Gil-Romera was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology through the Juan de la Cierva Research Program (JCI-2009-04345), the CSIC JAE-DOC 2011 program (JAEDOC36) and the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness project DINAMO2 (ref. CGL2012-33063).

[1] A comprehensive multisite paleoseismic archive of the late Holocene Dead Sea basin (past 2500 years) is established by constructing two age-depth chronological models of two sedimentary sections exposed at the retreating shores of the modern Dead Sea. Two new paleoseismic study sites studied are the Ein Feshkha Nature Reserve outcrop located at the northern part of the basin and close to an active underwater transverse fault and the east Ze'elim Gully outcrop at the southern part of the basin. Age-depth regression models are calculated for these sections based on atmospheric radiocarbon ages of short-lived organic debris calibrated with a Bayesian model. The uncertainties on individual model ages are smaller than 100 years. The new chronological records are compared to a laminae-counting study of the Ein Gedi core (Migowski et al., 2004) located at the central Dead Sea basin. The Ein Feshkha outcrop yielded the largest number of seismites in the studied time interval (n = 52), while lower numbers of seismites are recovered from the Ze'elim outcrop and Ein Gedi core (n = 15 and 36, respectively). The seismites show no strong dependence on the limnological-sedimentological conditions in the particular sampling sites (they coappear in both shallow and deep water environments and in different sedimentary facies). During time intervals when the chronologies are comparable it appears that the number of seismites is significantly larger in the northern part of the basin (Ein Gedi and Ein Feshkha). Seismic quiescence intervals are apparent at all three sites from 2nd–4th century A.D. and at 500–150 B.C. at Ze'elim and Ein Gedi. Several synchronous seismites appear in all sections (termed here the intrabasin seismites (IBS)). Among them: 1927, 1293, 1202/1212, 749, 551, 419, and 33 A.D. and 31 and mid-2nd century B.C. The recurrence time of the IBS from the 2nd century B.C. to the 14th century A.D. is ∼200 years, compared with ∼100 years for all earthquakes. On a diagram of epicentral distance versus magnitude, historic earthquakes that are correlated with IBS plot in a field of high local intensity. The farther and stronger IBS earthquakes require lower local intensities to be recorded. This study demonstrates that a painstaking effort is still needed for unraveling the seismic history of the Dead Sea basin. The results also indicate that such a study will likely be highly rewarding.