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Biosphere reserves have among their functions to support scientific research, education, training and monitoring. In the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve (RBCH), created in 2005, these functions have been accomplished with the creation of the Omora Ethnobotanical Park in 2000, and its implementation in 2008 as a co-founder site of the Chilean Network of Studies Long-term Socio-Ecological (LTSER-Chile). In 2016, this network has been strengthened with the addition of the new Cape Horn Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research Network (LTSER-Cape Horn). The latter includes the Omora Ethnobotanical Park, and three new sites added to the monitoring of the sub-Antarctic Magellanic ecoregion of South America. From south to north, the four sites are: (1) Gonzalo Island (56°31’S; 68°43’O), at the southern end of the Diego Ramirez archipelago, with sub-Antarctic vegetation dominated by grasses and cryptogams, devoid of woody species; (2) Horn Island (55°58’S; 67°13’O), at the southern end of the Cape Horn Islands archipelago, hosting the southernmost forest ecosystems on the planet, which are dominated by Magellan’s coigue (Nothofagus betuloides); (3) Omora Ethnobotanical Park (54°56’S; 67’40’O), Navarino Island, an ideal site for studies on climate change and its impact on biota and sub-Antarctic ecosystems, since it protects a watershed that includes a representative mosaic of characteristic habitats of the RBCH in an altitudinal gradient with a thermal decrease analogous to that which occurs with increases in latitude; and (4) Caleta 2 de Mayo Site (54°52’S; 68’41’O), Yendegaia Bay, in an ecotonal zone between evergreen and deciduous forests (product of the local climate gradient), at a site that will be central to future connectivity between Continental Chile, Tierra del Fuego, Navarino Island, and the RBCH. In 2015, UNESCO approved the Report of the First Periodic Review of the RBCH that proposed the protection of the Diego Ramirez Archipelago and the creation of the Diego Ramirez Islands Marine Park-Drake Pass (creation decree published in the Diario Oficial of Chile in January 2019). In this context, the new LTSER-Cape Horn network acquires great local, national and global relevance. At the local scale, it covers a representative environmental heterogeneity of the great diversity of landscapes and terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems of the RBCH and the sub-Antarctic Magellanic ecoregion. At the national scale, it incorporates sub-Antarctic monitoring sites, located at the southern end of South America, to LTSER-Chile and to the Monitoring Network of the Ministry of the Environment. On a global scale, the terrestrial ecosystems of the LTSER-Cape Horn network stands out for two main reasons: (1) these sub-Antarctic ecosystems lack a geographical replicate in the southern hemisphere, and (2) high latitude ecosystems are especially sensitive to global climate change. Thus, the LTSER-Cape Horn network helps to overcome critical geographical gaps in the implementation of the International Network for Long-Term Ecological Research (ILTER). In order to articulate these four sites and strengthen the training of technical capacities and knowledge transfer to decision makers in the area of special interest tourism and other sustainable economic activities, the LTSER-Cape Horn network will be managed locally from the new Cape Horn Sub-Antarctic Center (Cape Horn Center) that will be inaugurated in Puerto Williams in 2020. The implementation of the LTSER-Cape Horn network is based on a close collaboration with various actors: Ministry of National Assets, Ministry of Environment, Subsecretary of Fisheries and Aquaculture of the Ministry of Economy Development and Tourism, National Forestry Corporation (CONAF), General Water Directorate of the Ministry of Public Works, Navy of Chile, Chilean Police (Carabineros), Municipality of Cape Horn, Provincial Government of Chilean Antarctica, and the Regional Government of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica. In the following phases, the LTSER-Cape Horn network and the Cape Horn Center aim to strengthen the participation of the local community, especially the Yahgan Indigenous Community of Bahia Mejillones, artisanal fisheries, tour operators, and the educational community, including private actors. Located at the “southern summit” of the Americas, Puerto Williams, capital of the Chilean Antarctic Province emerges as a global hub for transdisciplinary sub-Antarctic research, equipped with a new center and network of long-term socio-ecological studies. Collaboration with regional, national and international actors will allow the LTSER-Cape Horn network and the Cape Horn Center to: (i) provide critical data, which will open up new opportunities for monitoring climate change and its impact on biodiversity and ecosystems in sub-Antarctic latitudes; (ii) consolidate long-term monitoring, which is an essential component to effectively design mitigation and adaptation actions; (iii) strengthen a local sustainable development model that, associated with the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve, contributes from the south of the world, to a biocultural conservation model that meets the needs of socio-economic well-being and environmental sustainability at multiple regional and planetary scales.

Biodiversity is vital in the functioning of ecosystems, but it’s permanently being threatened by anthropic impacts derived from productive activities. Thus, conservation has become a global challenge. In Chile, the dissociation between economic activities and conservation has triggered numerous socio-environmental conflicts in recent decades. This work explores how different projects that give rise to these conflicts can represent an underestimated threat to biodiversity. We identified socio-environmental conflicts in Chile and their associated projects by carrying out an online review of 1035 news articles published between 2004 and 2018 using the key words “environmental conflict”. We selected articles describing a socio-environmental conflict between parties caused by a project or productive sector. Conflict-generating projects were classified by productive sector and capital origin. In addition, their geographical distribution with respect to High Conservation Value Areas (HCVAs, protected areas and priority sites for conservation) was determined. A total of 283 projects were identified from 14 different productive sectors, most of them related to energy and mining, which threaten biodiversity and human well-being mainly due to pollution and habitat destruction. Chilean companies finance most of the projects, but international companies finance over half of the energy and mining projects. Moreover, 37 % of the projects were located within HCVAs either for the establishment of future protected areas or where protected areas are currently established. As countries make new efforts to maintain and recover biodiversity, it is contradictory not to consider the threats posed by conflict-generating projects to key areas for conservation, both in public policies and in spatial planning instruments.

Spatial heterogeneity in soil can influence the distribution of plant communities because plants differ in their ability to acquire resources. In nutrient-poor soils, plants should bear traits that prioritize conservation of resources over growth, whereas the opposite is expected in nutrient-rich soils. A coordinated response to soil fertility, in which leaves and roots converge into the same strategy, would lead to a community-level plant economics spectrum (PEScom). Here, we examine how nutrient availability across different soil types shapes the functional structure of desert shrub communities and how much of this variation is explained by species turnover or intraspecific variability (ITV). We measured leaf and root traits of 16 shrub species in four sites with contrasting soil nutrient availability in the southern edge of the Atacama Desert. In leaves, changes in soil nutrient availability were associated with a leaf economics spectrum, shifting from communities with more acquisitive strategies to communities with more conservative strategies with increasing nutrient limitation. No such pattern of co-variation was observed for roots; thus, the relationship between above and below-ground traits did not fit the PEScom. Variation of leaf traits was mainly determined by species turnover, while for root traits it was determined equally by species turnover and ITV. The lack of a PEScom appears to be related to the co-limitation of multiple resources, which promotes different responses in root traits. We highlight the importance of incorporating leaf and root traits to understand how multiple resource limitation shapes plant ecological strategies.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a pause in people's activities and a socio-economic crisis worldwide due to confinement. This situation is an unprecedented opportunity to understand how these changes may impact biodiversity and its conservation, as well as to study human-nature interaction. Biodiversity plays an essential role in conservation and economic activities, and in countries with greater inequality and low gross domestic product (GDP), biodiversity could have a low priority. Moreover, how biodiversity is prioritized in a society impacts how the citizens view it, and digital news tends to shape biodiversity narratives. The aim of this work was to determine the main trends in biodiversity-related news categories during the COVID-19 pandemic in countries with terrestrial and marine hotspots and relate them to the socioeconomic and public health context of each country. For this, we searched for news on biodiversity and Covid-19 in the first 6 months of the pandemic and related them to GDP, Gini-index, deaths, and infections by Covid-19. Results showed that conservation, public policies, and use of natural resources stood out as the main news categories across countries, with a positive narrative and mostly related to terrestrial rather than marine environments. On the other hand, the socio-economic and public health characteristics of each country had an influence on which aspect of the biodiversity was reflected in the media. For example, countries with greater inequality were associated with tourism news, additionally, countries with low GDP, high cases, and deaths by Covid-19 were associated with news about cultural diversity. In contrast, countries with high GDP and low inequality were associated with news about zoonosis, research and development, public policies, and alien and invasive species.

During the last two decades, online media have played an increasing role in modeling modern societies. However, their role to shape public perception of biodiversity conservation and their alignment with conservation policies have received little attention so far. We conducted an extensive qualitative assessment of the interest in biodiversity in online media in the case-study of Chile in order to identify the main topics that are covered and how they vary across time and geographic scale. We also compared national trends of biodiversity interest in Chile and other countries as a first assessment of the international situation. Regarding Chilean digital media, our results highlight that there is a diversification of the biodiversity-related topics in news articles when reducing geographic scale. Overall, regardless of the considered scale, conservation policies, biodiversity loss, environmental education and citizen participation represented over 60% of the topics covered by digital news articles. Regarding the 8 selected countries, biodiversity interest in digital media followed two contrasting inter-annual trends equally: on the one side, a growing coverage of biodiversity topics (Brazil, Colombia, France and Spain), and on the other side, a constant or decreasing interest in the other countries (Australia, Chile, Costa Rica and South Africa). Our analysis also indicates that national media interest in biodiversity is multifactorial and may strongly depend on the link a country has between its economy and natural resources, its political influence on the media and the holding of major environmental summits coupled with concrete political actions. Apparent disconnection of media and public interest observed on a continuous scale may indicate that other factors are prone to shape the public interest in biodiversity. This first assessment calls for further research, especially about the underlying processes driving changes in biodiversity interest, in order to implement effective conservation actions. It also invites conservation managers to diversify their conservation targets, taking into consideration biodiversity interest transmitted by media to wide audiences.

El genero Prosopis (Mimosoideae, Leguminosae) constituye un importante recurso genetico de ambientes aridos y semiaridos. Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz es una especie multiproposito nativa de America del Sur que presenta una gran variabilidad fenotipica. En Chile, esta especie crece en la region semiarida, a lo largo de lechos de rios de los valles transversales. En este trabajo se estudio la diversidad genetica y la estructura genetica de poblaciones de P. chilensis en los tres valles transversales de la Region de Coquimbo (29o-32oS) mediante un analisis de diversidad genetica de 182 individuos con cuatro marcadores de microsatelites nucleares y uno de cloroplasto. Utilizando un analisis espacial de componentes principales (sPCA), se detecto una clara estructura genetica jerarquica. Este analisis revelo la existencia de siete grupos geneticos distintos en la region estudiada. Ninguno de los grupos geneticos detectados se superpuso entre los valles. Esto sugiere que las cadenas montanosas que separan los tres valles transversales pueden haber ejercido un efecto de barrera. Sin embargo, aunque significativa, la diferenciacion genetica de la poblacion fue baja y la mayor parte de la variacion genetica se encontro dentro de los grupos. Estos resultados sugieren que un alto flujo genico podria estar contrarrestando y desdibujando el efecto de factores de estructuramiento. Este es el primer estudio de genetica de poblaciones en P. chilensis en Chile y los datos geneticos obtenidos pueden ser de utilidad para la conservacion de esta especie arborea vulnerable y multiproposito.

In the southern Andes mountains (27-39◦S) Azorella madreporica and Laretia acaulis, two Apiaceae cushion plant species commonly known as yaretas, conform a well-established altitudinal vegetation belt along the lower Andean zone. These species have been considered as fundamental components of several ecological dynamics within their communities; however, high mountain ecosystems are increasingly threatened worldwide by natural and anthropogenic pressures and the southern Andes are not the exception. Recognizing that genetic information is crucial for the success of any conservation or restoration initiative inwild populations, we developed and cross-amplified 28 specifically designed microsatellite markers (14 in A. madreporica and 14 in L. acaulis), and also tested the cross amplification of 25 markers from the related species Azorella selago. In a region which is particularly vulnerable to global change trends, this new polymorphic microsatellite loci will be useful in the study of the genetic diversity of these high-mountain cushion plants, which are pivotal in the structuring of their native ecosystems.

Adaptations to drought of deciduous and evergreen species in arid environments are associated with resource-acquisitive (drought avoidance) and resource-conservative (drought tolerance) strategies of water use, respectively. Few studies have addressed whether a single species can exhibit both drought avoidance and drought tolerance strategies along an aridity gradient, and none have evaluated the role of ecotypic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity in shaping such strategies. In the desert shrub Encelia canescens , distributed along an aridity gradient in the Atacama Desert, we hypothesized that populations located in sites with lower and more variable rainfall (northern populations) would exhibit patterns of trait means and plasticity reflecting a water-conservative strategy, while populations in less arid and less variable environments (southern populations) would exhibit a water-acquisitive strategy. We also tested the hypothesis that functional variation in trait means and plasticity are not alternative mechanisms of adaptation to the environment. In a common garden experiment using plants from seeds collected from six populations spanning the species distribution range we found that plants from the northern populations were smaller, had fewer leaves, lower photosynthetic rates and had higher plasticity for root:shoot ratios and lower plasticity for leaf shedding, suggesting a resource-conservative strategy compared to plants from the southern populations, which showed a resource-acquisitive strategy. We found no association between variation in trait means and plasticity, which indicates that these are not alternative mechanisms of plant adaptation to environmental variation. Results suggest that E. canescens populations have evolved different strategies to cope with drought stress depending on their location along the Atacama Desert’s aridity gradient. This gives us a better understanding of the ecological and evolutionary processes that drive phenotypic variation among populations.

Countries that are signatories of the Convention of Biological Diversity are committed to the goal of protecting 17% of their natural ecosystems by 2020. The lack of an up-to-date, operational classification and cartography of regional ecosystems seriously limits the assessment of progress towards this goal. Here, we present a broad ecosystem framework, which combines land use, functional traits of dominant plant species, and climatic factors for the classification of terrestrial ecosystems and apply this framework to classify Chilean terrestrial ecosystems. This new classification is consistent with the recently proposed IUCN framework to assess ecosystem conservation status. Using this framework, we identified and described 30 Chilean terrestrial ecosystems, including land units of natural and anthropogenic origin. We also provide a cartographic representation of ecosystems for land planning purposes and an overall assessment of their conservation status. We evaluated the representation of the 30 ecosystems in the Chilean National System of Protected Areas (NSPA) and in Private Protected Areas (PPA), identifying 15 ecosystems underrepresented (below the 17% target) in the NSPA, in contrast to only 11 when the area of NSPA+PPA was considered. The proposed classification can be broadly applicable to assess the conservation status of ecosystems elsewhere, using similar conceptual and methodological tools. The development of functional ecosystem classifications for different countries must be encouraged to facilitate monitoring of global conservation targets.

Plant facilitation is now recognized as an important process in severe environments. However, there is still no agreement on how facilitation changes as conditions become increasingly severe. The classic stress gradient hypothesis (SGH) predicts a monotonic increase in facilitation, which rises in frequency as conditions approach the extreme end of the environmental gradient. However, few studies have evaluated the validity of the SGH at the community level, the level at which it was formulated. Moreover, few studies have tested the SGH at either extreme of the gradient, and very few have excluded the effect of livestock on community response to stress. In line with the SGH, we hypothesized that several spatial pattern summary statistics would change monotonically from the least to the most arid sites, indicating increasingly aggregated patterns. In this study, we performed an evaluation of the SGH both within communities of shrub species and across a large portion of the Atacama Desert, and we isolated the abiotic component of the SGH. Our environmental gradient covered an extreme aridity gradient (

Understanding the regeneration niche of species may allow us to gain insight into how communities are structured. In deserts, the regeneration niche is usually related to spaces beneath shrubs where shade cast by shrubs creates microenvironments that benefit seedlings and where even small amounts of rain may favour germination and establishment. Shade and water may also interact with different types of soils. However, species may have different requirements for germination and seedling survival. We could expect that shrub species with different drought tolerances exhibit different responses to the combination of these factors. We ask if responses of dominant species of the Atacama Desert to abiotic factors (shade, water and soil type) are related to their drought tolerance, a topic not exhaustively explored in shrubs growing in true deserts. We conducted two factorial experiments. The first one was designed to evaluate how shade (microhabitat) in combination with water may affect germination (emergence) and early survival. In the second experiment, we assessed the influence of shade in relation to soil type. Each species responded distinctively to the three variables under study, but in general, their emergence responses were more influenced by water (more water, greater emergence) than by microhabitat or soil type. Survival was influenced both by microhabitat and by water and was higher under shade and abundant water. Soil type affected only one of our species in terms of emergence. Species responses in general depended on their tolerance to stress. In one species, there was indication of a seed–seedling conflict. Our results show similar species responses to environmental constraints but also more or less unique responses that are related to their tolerance to drought and which may ultimately permit species coexistence. We found that shade may not be important for germination but may be crucial for survival in dry years.

Models of plant–plant interactions suggest that nurse plants are critical for the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem functions in arid and semiarid lands. At the community scale, however, empirical support of this idea is limited and context-dependent. Following on a preliminary work which suggested that a dominant shrub in north-central Chile ( Porlieria chilensis ) had nurse plant effects, we tested the effects of this and two other shrubs ( Adesmia bedwellii and Proustia cuneifolia ) on community biomass production, species density, and species composition of ephemeral plants in the semiarid scrub of the Bosque Fray Jorge National Park (Chile) over four consecutive years. We tested for main and interactive effects of shrubs and precipitation on total biomass production and species density of ephemeral plant communities using Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM). To analyze the effects of shrubs and precipitation on species composition we used Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) and t-value biplot analysis. Total biomass production increased significantly with precipitation and was consistently lower beneath shrub canopies, particularly under A. bedwellii and P. chilensis . Although ephemeral plant species density generally was higher in open areas, differences between open and shrub canopy samples diminished with increasing precipitation. Finally, despite significant differences in ephemeral plant species composition between open areas and shrub canopies, we found no evidence of shrub species-specific effects. In conclusion, our results do not support a classical nurse plant syndrome in the semiarid scrub of the Bosque Fray Jorge National Park although shrubs can increase local diversity by favoring some ephemeral plant species that are absent in open areas.

Within its almost 9000 ha, Bosque Fray Jorge National Park (BFJNP) possesses a natural mosaic of vegetation formations dominated by thorn scrub (63.3% of the park) and scrub with cacti and other succulents (34.1%); these formations, whose plant covers are above 40%, are representative of the Coastal Desert vegetation. Additionally, BFJNP has 230 ha (2.6%) of a relict fog forest. This unique combination of vegetation formations, partly explains the high plant species richness of the park. We discuss the climatic and topo-edaphic factors associated with each type of vegetation formation. Compared to BFJNP, the surrounding vegetation matrix shows evidence of changes in both the dominant vegetation and their plant covers; moreover, it is floristically depauperate relative to the park. This territory also includes agricultural land and plantations of non-native shrubs, as well as goat herding and small, inter-dispersed human settlements. Its main land cover types are: scrub (50%), scrub with succulents (34%), agricultural land (8%), secondary prairies (3.5%), and plantations of non-native shrubs (1.6%). Approximately 22% of this area presents high levels of anthropization. Additionally, two wind farms (217 wind turbines) have begun operating within the vicinity of BFJNP within the past two years. BFJNP provides more than a mere representative sample of the current vegetation; it constitutes a remnant of the natural vegetation that once dominated the Coastal Desert before European colonization. Whereas the relict fog forest has been historically isolated, the desert vegetation is increasingly losing connectivity outside the park. We discuss the consequences of this isolation in terms of long-term maintenance of biodiversity. We argue that plant communities at BFJNP are the best available model for ecological restoration projects in this region of Chile.

Many plants can produce seeds via multiple reproductive modes, such as selfing and outcrossing. Having multiple reproductive modes can be advantageous if it assures seed production when outcrossing fails, which is important for species inhabiting environments where pollinators are scarce or variable. However, it can also be disadvantageous due to the fitness costs associated to selfing. Consequently, plants have mechanisms to reduce the incidence of selfing. Here we examined the breeding system of Myrcianthes coquimbensis; this threatened Atacama Desert shrub is the last species to bloom in the community and exhibits low visitation rates per flower because pollinators are less abundant. Our aim was to determine whether this plant can produce fruits by modes other than outcrossing, and whether it possesses floral traits to prevent sexual interference. We conducted experimental flower treatments in two localities to determine whether fruits were produced by outcrossing, selfing, autonomous selfing and agamospermy. We also evaluated stigma receptivity and pollen viability during a flower’s lifespan. M. coquimbensis developed fruits and seeds by all the reproductive modes assessed, including selfing and agamospermy. Flowers presented partial segregation of sexual functions, with the peak of pollen viability occurring before the peak of stigma receptivity. Selfing is unavoidable in M. coquimbensis and likely interferes with outcrossing. Coupled with possible early inbreeding depression, it probably results in a cost for seed production. Our results suggest that this species may be vulnerable in scenarios where pollinators are scarce; however, agamospermy may provide an alternative route of seed production in these scenarios.

In the winter-rain southern Atacama Desert of the Coquimbo Region of Chile, El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events modulate primary productivity. In this region, there are important changes in water availability between La Niña (dry) and El Niño (rainy) years. Using inter-annual comparisons of LANDSAT images from 30° to 31° S latitude, we observed changes in primary productivity between dry and rainy years at the regional level. There were also significant, negative correlations between productivity and elevation, with changes occurring first at low elevation during rainy years. The limiting factors to dryland vegetation primary productivity is different in regard to elevation. Rain during an El Niño year is the main factor that explains the increase in primary productivity at low elevation, while lower temperatures reduce and delay the net primary productivity at mid elevation.

El estado de conservación de la flora nativa a una escala administrativa como la regional es útil para implementar medidas que reduzcan la pérdida de biodiversidad a nivel local. En este trabajo se clasifica la flora nativa de las regiones de Arica-Parinacota y de Tarapacá según su estado de conservación, utilizando una base de datos de 7.432 registros geo- referenciados que corresponden a 717 especies vasculares nativas. La clasificación se realizó utilizando principalmente los criterios de distribución geográfica de UICN (versión 3.1). Un 27,6% de las especies nativas presentes en estas regiones presentan problemas de conservación (3,2% En Peligro y 24,4% Vulnerable). En la Región de Arica y Parinacota las especies amenazadas alcanzarían el 34,4% de la flora nativa y el 24,3% en la Región de Tarapacá. La flora nativa de estas dos regiones tiene un grado de amenaza mayor que los encontrados en las regiones de Antofagasta, Atacama o Coquimbo. Esto se explica parcialmente por distribuciones restringidas (bajas extensiones de la presencia y/o áreas de ocupación) sumado a una disminución en la calidad de su hábitat.

In stressful environments, nurse elements, such as shrubs or rocks, facilitate plant recruitment by providing less severe environments for seed germination and seedling survival. As seedlings develop, however, they may compete for resources with their nurse when it is a plant instead of a rock. We examined the role of conspecific plants and rocks as nurses of an endangered Atacama-Desert shrub. Establishment was highest under conspecific plants, revealing that in stressful environments plants can facilitate establishment of their own species. Our study contrasts findings from other environments where recruitment is lowest near plants of the same species., Harsh environmental conditions in arid ecosystems limit seedling recruitment to microhabitats under nurse structures, such as shrubs or rocks. These structures, however, do not necessarily afford the same benefits to plants because nurse rocks provide only physical nurse effects, whereas nurse plants can provide both physical and biological nurse effects. Nevertheless, if the nurse plant is a conspecific, the benefits it provides may be outweighed by higher mortality due to negative density-dependent processes; consequently, negative density-dependence is expected to limit plants from acting as nurses to their own seedlings. The degree to which an abiotic nurse may be more beneficial than a conspecific one remains largely unexplored. Here, we examine the role and elucidate the mechanisms by which conspecific plants and rocks promote plant establishment in a hyper-arid desert. For 4 years, we examined establishment patterns of Myrcianthes coquimbensis (Myrtaceae), a threatened desert shrub that recruits solely in rock cavities and under conspecific shrubs. Specifically, we characterized these microhabitats, as well as open interspaces for comparison, and conducted germination, seed removal and seedling survival experiments. Our results revealed that conspecific shrubs and nurse rocks modified environmental conditions in similar ways; soil and air temperatures were lower, and water availability was higher than in open interspaces. We found no evidence on negative density-dependent recruitment: seed removal was lowest and seedling emergence highest under conspecific plants, moreover seedling survival probabilities were similar in rock cavities and under conspecific plants. We conclude that the probability of establishment was highest under conspecific plants than in other microhabitats, contrasting what is expected under the Janzen–Connell recruitment model. We suggest that for species living in stressful environments, population regulation may be a function of positive density-dependence and intraspecific facilitation may be a process that promotes the persistence of some plant species within a community.

Connectivity between populations plays a key role in the long-term persistence of species in fragmented habitats. This is of particular concern for biodiversity preservation in drylands, since water limited landscapes are typically characterized by little suitable habitat cover, high habitat fragmentation, harsh matrices, and are being rapidly degraded at a global scale. In this study, we modelled landscape connectivity between 11 guanaco Lama guanicoe populations in Chile's arid Norte Chico, a region that supports the last remnant coastal populations of this emblematic herbivore indigenous to South America. We produced a habitat suitability model to derive a regional surface resistance map, and used circuit theory to map functional connectivity, investigate the relative isolation between populations, and identify those that contribute most to the patch connectivity network. Predicted suitable habitat for L. guanicoe represented about 25% of the study region (i.e. 29,173 km2) and was heterogeneously distributed along a continuous stretch along the Andes, and discontinuous patches along the coast. As a result, we found that high connectivity current flows in the mid and high Andes formed a wide, continuous connectivity corridor, enabling connectivity between all high Andean populations. Coastal populations, in contrast, were more isolated. These groups demonstrate no inter-population connectivity between themselves, only with higher altitude populations, and for two of them, animal movement was linked to the effectiveness of wildlife crossings along the Pan-American highway. Our results indicate that functional connectivity is an issue of concern for L. guanicoe in Chile’s Norte Chico, implying that future conservation and management plans should emphasize strategies aimed at conserving functional connectivity between coastal and Andean populations, as well as the protection of habitat patches likely to act as stepping stones within the connectivity network. The raw material it is composed of three folders: 1. Maxent_products folder contains the main results and analysis of Maxent model results plus ocurrences data used for modelling.2. ResistanceSurf folder: this folder show the final landscape resistance used to build the connectivity model by using Circuitscape program. 3. Circuitscape matrix folder: contains the resistance matrix generated by circuitscape as from logistic output of maxent model.This study has been sumitted to PeerJ journal.

In birds, the environmental variables and intrinsic characteristics of the nest have important fitness consequences through its influence on the selection of nesting sites. However, the extent to which these variables interact with variables that operate at the landscape scale, and whether there is a hierarchy among the different scales that influences nest-site selection, is unknown. This interaction could be crucial in burrowing birds, which depend heavily on the availability of suitable nesting locations. One representative of this group is the burrowing parrot, Cyanoliseus patagonus that breeds on specific ravines and forms large breeding colonies. At a particular site, breeding aggregations require the concentration of adequate environmental elements for cavity nesting, which are provided by within ravine characteristics. Therefore, intrinsic ravine characteristics should be more important in determining nest site selection compared to landscape level characteristics. Here, we assess this hypothesis by comparing the importance of ravine characteristics operating at different scales on nest-site selection and their interrelation with reproductive success. We quantified 12 characteristics of 105 ravines in their reproductive habitat. For each ravine we quantified morphological variables, distance to resources and disturbance as well as nest number and egg production in order to compare selected and non-selected ravines and determine the interrelationship among variables in explaining ravine differences. In addition, the number of nests and egg production for each reproductive ravine was related to ravine characteristics to assess their relation to reproductive success. We found significant differences between non-reproductive and reproductive ravines in both intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics. The multidimensional environmental gradient of variation between ravines, however, shows that differences are mainly related to intrinsic morphological characteristics followed by extrinsic variables associated to human disturbance. Likewise, within reproductive ravines, intrinsic characteristics are more strongly related to the number of nests. The probability of producing eggs, however, was related only to distance to roads and human settlements. Patterns suggest that C. patagonus mainly selects nesting sites based on intrinsic morphological characteristics of ravines. Scale differences in the importance of ravine characteristics could be a consequence of the particular orography of the breeding habitat. The arrangement of resources is associated to the location of the gullies rather than to individual ravines, determining the spatial availability and disposition of resources and disturbances. Thus, nest selection is influenced by intrinsic characteristics that maximize the fitness of individuals. Scaling in nest-selection is discussed under an optimality approach that partitions patch selection based on foraging theory.

Aims Plant functional traits determine how plants respond to environmental factors and influence ecosystem processes. Among them, root traits and analyses of relations between above and below-ground traits in natural communities are scarce. We characterized a set of above- and below-ground traits of three dominant shrub species in a semiarid shrub-steppe that had contrasting leaf phenological habits (deciduous, semideciduous and evergreen). We analysed if there was coordination among above- and below-ground resource economics patterns: i.e. patterns of biomass allocation, construction costs and lifespan. Important Findings Above- and below-ground traits and their resource economics relations pointed to species-specific functional strategies to cope with drought and poor soils and to a species ranking of fast to slow whole-plant strategies in terms of resource uptake, biomass construction costs and turnover. The deciduous shrub, Proustia cuneifolia, had relatively deep and even distribution of roots, and high proportion of short-lived tissues of low C construction costs: it had high fine to coarse root and high leaf-to-stem biomass ratios, high specific leaf area (SLA), and stems of low wood density. This strategy allows Proustia to maximize and coordinate above- and belowground resources uptake as long as the most limiting factor (water) is available, but at the cost of having relative high plant biomass turnover. The evergreen Porlieria chilensis, instead, displayed a more conservative and slow strategy in terms of resource economics. It had ~80% of the roots in the 40 cm topsoil profile, low proportion of fine compared with coarse roots and low leaf-to-stem ratios, low SLA and stems of high wood density, i.e. it invested in C costly tissues that, overall, persist longer but probably at the cost of having lower plant resource uptake rates. Traits in the semideciduous Adesmia bedwellii were in between these two functional extremes. Our results revealed high functional diversity and aboveand below-ground complementarity in resource economics among these three codominant species in the Chilean coastal desert.

The definition of a common vision that includes social and environmental goals, ecosystem services and/or biodiversity features that people are interested in maintaining or restoring is a great challenge for marine protected areas (MPAs). Recent initiatives have promoted broadening the focus from biodiversity conservation alone to the conservation of both ecosystem services and biodiversity, indicating that this integration should improve support and compliance from stakeholders. Using a Multiple-Use Coastal Marine Protected Area recently proposed in northern Chile, we investigated (i) stakeholders’ perceptions of the valuation of ecosystem services, threats to their provision, and the prioritization of ecosystem services, biodiversity features, and uses in a planning scenario, and (ii) stakeholders’ expectations for the establishment of a new MPA. The perceptions of different groups of stakeholders were compared and statistically analyzed, and the relationships among prioritizations were studied using a network approach. Stakeholders identified and valued 13 ecosystem services, 28 biodiversity features, 20 uses and activities, and 22 threats. Significant differences among the valuations and prioritizations of different stakeholder groups were attributable principally to artisanal fishermen's perceptions of some components that are directly related to their activities and livelihoods. High expectations of benefits from a new MPA implementation were observed for all categories of stakeholders. To relate the different valuated components, we proposed a network-based conceptual model that reduces complexity, and also as a strategy to communicate relationships and trade-offs occurring in this particular social–ecological system to the several stakeholders. We strongly recommend early stakeholder engagement so as to understand the variability in environmental perceptions and then reflect that variation in the planning and management actions of MPAs, thus improving support for their implementation and achieving conservation and societal goals. Our findings indicate that stakeholders’ perceptions and prioritizations of ecosystem services, biodiversity features and uses should be used as the basis for starting the MPA implementation and planning process.

The ecology of macroinvertebrate communities in arid regions is still poorly understood. Here we examined how the community structure varied at spatial and temporal scales in streams and tributaries of the Huasco River in semi-arid region of Northern Chile. We expected that macroinvertebrate distribution may be responding to natural processes of mineralization described for Chilean semiarid basins. The relationships among biotic and abiotic variables were assessed through multivariate techniques (principal component analysis, non-metric multidimensional scaling, canonical correspondence analysis), and a two-way analysis of similarity was used to evaluate differences between basins and years (2007, 2008, and 2009). Significant differences in community structure and physical–chemical variables between basins (Del Carmen and Del Transito) were found, but not between years. Altitude, Mn, Al, Ca, Na, HCO3, and dissolved oxygen were the variables that best accounted for the communities distribution. In particular, high metals concentration in El Transito basin should determine low density and diversity of macroinvertebrates. Chironomidae, Ephydridae, and Glossiphoniidae were associated to waters with high metals content and acidic pH, whereas Baetidae, Hydroptilidae, and Blephariceridae were associated to sites with more favorable physical–chemical conditions. These results contribute to understand the ecological patterns of macroinvertebrates in arid regions and should lead to conservation and monitoring plans for this remote place.

La perdida de la biodiversidad producida por el crecimiento demografico, la demanda por recursos y la actividad productiva es contradictoria con el reconocimiento de su importancia. En ecosistemas terrestres, el Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas del Estado (SNASPE) contiene cerca del 19 % del territorio de Chile continental; aunque no representa todos los ecosistemas con especies amenazadas, puede ser complementado implementando nuevas areas protegidas publicas (AP) y privadas (APP). El desarrollo de areas marinas protegidas (AMP) es incipiente, y algunas iniciativas comparten la responsabilidad de conservacion con los usuarios locales. En Chile, un conjunto de reglamentos, normas legales y tratados internacionales promueven distintas oportunidades de conservacion en ecosistemas terrestres y marinos costeros, de las cuales emergen nuevos desafios. Entre estos destacan, estandarizar la clasificacion de especies segun categorias de conservacion en un protocolo internacional y optimizar las metodologias para seleccionar areas prioritarias, ambos criterios indispensables para decidir que y donde conservar. Otro desafio es integrar el valor intrinseco de la biodiversidad con los servicios ecosistemicos que presta para instaurar una cultura participativa. Esto mejoraria la efectividad de las distintas estrategias de proteccion y uso sustentable de la biodiversidad al incorporar la educacion y la participacion ciudadana desde una perspectiva biocultural. La educacion fomenta la conservacion de la naturaleza al hacernos conscientes de nuestro entorno; mientras que la participacion involucra a los ciudadanos como un actor mas en la toma de decisiones, procurando la aplicacion efectiva de las estrategias de conservacion de la biodiversidad.

This issue of Plant Ecology & Diversity differs in content from what the reader is accustomed to. It provides a snapshot of plant biology in Latin America and the Caribbean today, represented in a set of papers on botany – in its traditional sense of the discipline – and, in addition, on plant physiology, ecological interactions, invasive species and conservation. The papers are based on presentations made during the X. Latin American Botanical Congress, held in La Serena, Chile between 4 and 10 October 2010. As, for many readers, Latin American botany is little known, we briefly outline the milestones in its development on the continent to provide a context for the collection of papers in this issue.

Background: Myrcianthes coquimbensis is an endangered shrub endemic to Chile. No published account is known about its biology, ecology or threats to its continued existence. Aims: To document the current state of knowledge of M. coquimbensis regarding its geographic distribution, and population and reproductive parameters, and to evaluate threats in its distribution range. Methods: Historical records and recent survey data of 110 localities were used to characterise its known distribution. Plots were established in seven localities to determine the proportion of flowering individuals, recruitment and estimate population size and structure. Finally, levels of post-dispersal seed predation were determined in one locality. Results: The current distribution of M. coquimbensis extends along 82.8 km of the Chilean coast, where the species is mainly threatened by habitat loss. Only 13% of the individuals flowered during 2010, and 66% of these plants lost their entire flower crop due to desiccation. Few seeds (7....

Background: Chile is committed to extending its National System of Protected Areas (NSPA), focusing on eco-regions whose ecosystems are currently under-represented in the NSPA. A newly proposed law aims to create a Service of Biodiversity and Protected Areas that would unify the terrestrial and marine systems. The proposed law would allow the inclusion of private protected areas. Aims: We evaluate the current status of the conservation areas and propose an eco-regional plan that would allow reaching the overall target to bring 10% of all natural ecosystems under protection. Methods: A GAP analysis for all Chilean terrestrial and marine environments considered two protection scenarios: (1) public protected areas only, and (2) a combination of public and private protected areas. Afterwards, a multi-scale MARXAN assessment including 1367 conservation objects was carried out to identify suitable protected areas. Results: Chile does not meet its conservation target in four out of its 11 terrestrial eco-regions...

A decision support tool was used to determine priority sites for marine conservation within the Isla Grande de Atacama multiple uses marine protected area (MUMPA) in northern Chile, based on both biological and social information. Scuba diving, and an unweighted paired-group method using arithmetic average (UPGMA) analyses were used to determine the main benthic communities found in the shallow rocky and soft-sediment subtidal. To establish the costs of conservation, a social survey was undertaken to identify major users, uses and localities within the MUMPA. A multi-layer database with biological, physical, and social information was generated and further defined 28 approximately 70 ha analysis units. Explicit conservation criteria were then determined and four conservation goals defined (protection of 10, 20, 50, and 70% of each of the communities). Seven rocky reef and three soft-sediment communities were identified in the shallow subtidal. Four of the 28 units had high costs of conservation owing to high frequency of use by fishermen, divers, and algae harvesters (main users). These areas represented the highest risks for potential conflicts with the main users. Under the conservation goals of 10% and 20%, 36.8 and 44.4% of the whole marine area were selected as priority areas for protection respectively. The units selected presented low and medium costs of conservation, thus they had low risks of potential conflicts with users. This is the first study that uses a decision support tool to identify priority sites (i.e. units) in the shallow subtidal based on benthic communities and also incorporates social aspects to assess conservation costs. The use of social aspects enables the establishment of management strategies that agree both with biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development of fishing communities. This approach can be replicated for the planning of other coastal MPAs where artisanal fisheries and tourist activities co-occur and interact with conservation efforts. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

El aumento de la demanda energética chilena en los últimos años ha promovido la creación de una gran cantidad de proyectos de generación eléctrica. La posible instalación de tres centrales termoeléctricas a carbón al norte de la Región de Coquimbo y en las inmediaciones de áreas definidas como claves para la conservación y manejo de la biodiversidad marina (e.g., reservas marinas, áreas de manejo y explotación de recursos bentónicos) y terrestre (e.g., reserva nacional, sitios prioritarios), ha generado conflictos sociales y controversias sobre su ubicación y compatibilidad con los usos propuestos para el área. El presente comentario plantea el conflicto que se origina entre la necesidad de cubrir los requerimientos energéticos de Chile y la implementación de iniciativas de conservación y manejo de recursos naturales. Se describe la importancia y relevancia ecológica y económica del área de posible instalación de las termoeléctricas y se revisan los principales impactos reportados para este tipo de tecnología sobre la salud humana y ecosistémica. Finalmente, se proponen enfoques y herramientas que pueden asistir en la toma de decisiones y en la resolución de conflictos.In recent years, Chilean increasing energy needs have promoted the creation of many initiatives to generate electricity. The possible installation of three coal-fired power plants in the coastal area north of the Region of Coquimbo and close to areas identified as key to the conservation and management of marine (e.g., marine reserves, management and exploitation areas for benthic resources) and terrestrial (e.g., national reserve, priority sites) biodiversity, has generated social conflicts and raised concerns about the location and compatibility with others proposed uses for the area. This commentary proposes the conflict that arises between the need to cope with Chile's energy needs and the implementation of conservation and management of natural resources initiatives. We describe the ecological and economic significance and importance of the area of possible installation of power plants and the main impacts reported for this type of technology on human and ecosystem health. Finally, we suggest approaches and tools that can help in decision-making and conflicts resolution.

The abundance of exotic plants is thought to be limited by competition with resident species (including plants and generalist herbivores). In contrast, observations in semiarid Chile suggest that a native generalist rodent, the degu (Octodon degus), may be facilitating the expansion of exotic annual plants. We tested this hypothesis with a 20-year data set from a World Biosphere Reserve in mediterranean Chile. In this semiarid environment, rainfall varies annually and dramatically influences cover by both native and exotic annual plants; degu population density affects the composition and cover of exotic and native annual plants. In low-rainfall years, cover of both native and exotic herbs is extremely low. Higher levels of precipitation result in proportional increases in cover of all annual plants (exotic and native species), leading in turn to increases in degu population densities, at which point they impact native herbs in proportion to their greater cover, indirectly favoring the expansion of exotic plants. We propose that bottom-up control of consumers at our site results in top-down indirect facilitation of invasive annual herbs, and that this pattern may be general to other semiarid ecosystems.

A partir de 1985 comienzan los esfuerzos del Estado de Chile, con el apoyo de especialistas, para generar listas de especies de plantas (1985) y animales (1987) con altos a moderados riesgos de extinción en el corto plazo producto de actividades antrópicas (i.e., especies amenazadas). Las siete categorías de amenazas utilizadas para la fauna coinciden con las empleadas por la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) en 1982; para la flora hubo coincidencia en solo cinco de las categorías utilizadas. En el año 1994, la Ley 19300 de Bases del Medio Ambiente estableció seis categorías de estados de conservación. El Reglamento para la Clasificación de Especies Silvestres, promulgado el 2005, definió estas seis categorías haciendo una combinación entre lo propuesto por la UICN en 2001 y 1982. La generación de este sistema híbrido que no era comparable con el utilizado ampliamente en el mundo, restringió severamente la posibilidad de clasificar a las especies con amenaza inferior al nivel de Vulnerable. Complicaciones adicionales se generaron con la inclusión de categorías de conservación en la Ley 19473 de Caza (1996), la Ley 20283 sobre Recuperación del Bosque Nativo y Fomento Forestal (2008), y sus respectivos reglamentos. La Ley 20417 (publicada el 26 de enero 2010) modificó la ley 19300 e incorporó las categorías recomendadas por la UICN. Ahora el Estado requiere adecuar varios cuerpos legales para avanzar en el conocimiento del estado de conservación de la flora y la fauna nacional, y consecuentemente, asegurar la implementación de medidas efectivas de protección de la biodiversidad.Since 1985, the Chilean government with the participation and support of different specialists in plant and animal conservation, started the publication of checklists (i.e. red books) of plant (1985) and animal species (1987) with high to modérate risk of extinction due to human activities (i.e. threatened species). The seven categories of threats used in these publications matched those used by the International Unión for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1982; nonetheless, for the flora there was matching only in five of the categories used. In 1994, the Law 19300 on the General Bases of the Environment established six categories of conservation status. The regulations for the classification of the wild species in Conservation categories, enacted in 2005, defined these six categories, which resulted from a combination of those proposed by the IUCN in 2001 and 1982. The generation of this hybrid system, which is not fully comparable with that of the IUCN (2001) and widely used in the rest of the world, has severely restricted the possibility of classifying species with a threat level lower than "Vulnerable". Further complications were generated due to the definition of conservation categories that appeared in the Laws 19473 (1996) regulating the hunting activity and 20283 (2008) supporting the native forest recovery and forestry development. The Law 20417 (enacted in January 26, 2010) modified the Law 19300 and incorporated the categories recommended by IUCN. Currently, the State requires adapting several legal bodies to advance in the knowledge of the conservation status of the nation's flora and fauna, and consequently, ensure the implementation of effective efforts to protect our biodiversity.

Questions: (1) What is the water threshold for shrub seedling establishment in arid scrubland? (2) How do seedling root growth morphological traits affect the water threshold required for seedling establishment? Location: Arid scrubland, Atacama Desert, north-central Chile. Methods: We conducted a field experiment with nine native shrub species under a gradient of simulated rainfall to test if species with deep root architecture have higher seedling survival rates and establish more successfully during water pulses. Results: Seedling survival rate was very low; only 2% of the 12150 planted seedlings survived the first summer drought. Seedling survival required at least 206mm of water, which is twice the average rainfall and roughly equivalent to the precipitation during an ENSO (El Ni˜ no Southern Oscillation) event in this region. Seedling survival at the onset of the summer drought was best explained by leaf habit, root length and initial seedling size. However, only Senna cumingii seedlings survived through the first year. S. cumingii seedlings had distinctively longer roots than the other shrub species, enabling them to reach moister soil layers. Conclusions: Water conditions resembling rainy years enhance shrub seedling establishment in the Atacama Desert, but the effects of higher water availability are strongly dependent on the shrub species. Rapid and deep rooting appears to be a very important functional trait for successful first-year survival in this arid system where water availability is highly episodic.

La producción de carbón vegetal a partir de arbustos leñosos es una de las principales amenazas para la vegetación nativa en zonas áridas. En este trabajo se estima la producción de carbón en la provincia de Huasco, al sur de la Región de Atacama, y se identifican las principales especies utilizadas en este proceso. Se detectaron 21 puntos de venta de carbón nativo en el área de estudio. En cada uno de ellos se recolectaron muestras del carbón comercializado, las que fueron posteriormente comparadas con muestras de referencia. Se realizaron 28 entrevistas a vendedores, productores de carbón nativo e informantes claves, para estimar el volumen de producción anual. Se identificaron 4 sitios productivos en la zona de estudio, tres de ellos entre Vallenar y El Tránsito, y uno en Incahuasi-Tres Cruces. Se estimó para el año 2007 una producción total de carbón vegetal de 281 toneladas para la provincia de Huasco, lo que equivale a una extracción anual de arbustos en un área de entre 573 y 1.112 hectáreas. Los principales arbustos nativos utilizados corresponden a Fabiano imbricata (Solanaceae), Balsamocarpon brevifolium (Fabaceae) y Adesmia hystrix (Fabaceae).Charcoal production from woody shrubs is one of the main threats to native vegetation in arid zones. The aim of this investigation was to estimate the production of charcoal produced in Huasco province, southern of Atacama Región, and to identify the main species used in this process. Twenty one points of sale of native charcoal were detected in the study área. In each point, samples of the commercialized charcoal were collected and subsequently compared with reference samples. Twenty eight sellers, charcoal producers, and key informants were interviewed to estimate the volume of annual production. Four places of production were identified in the study área, three of them between Vallenar and El Tránsito, and one of them in Incahuasi-Tres Cruces. For 2007, a total production of 281 tons of charcoal was estimated in Huasco province, which is equivalent to an annual extraction of shrubs between 573 y 1,112 hectares. The main native shrubs used for the production of charcoal are Fabiana imbricata (Solanaceae), Balsamocarpon brevifolium (Fabaceae) and Adesmia hystrix (Fabaceae).

La produccion de carbon vegetal a partir de arbustos lenosos es una de las principales amenazas para la vegetacion nativa en zonas aridas. En este trabajo se estima la produccion de carbon en la provincia de Huasco, al sur de la Region de Atacama, y se identifican las principales especies utilizadas en este proceso. Se detectaron 21 puntos de venta de carbon nativo en el area de estudio. En cada uno de ellos se recolectaron muestras del carbon comercializado, las que fueron posteriormente comparadas con muestras de referencia. Se realizaron 28 entrevistas a vendedores, productores de carbon nativo e informantes claves, para estimar el volumen de produccion anual. Se identificaron 4 sitios productivos en la zona de estudio, tres de ellos entre Vallenar y El Transito, y uno en Incahuasi-Tres Cruces. Se estimo para el ano 2007 una produccion total de carbon vegetal de 281 toneladas para la provincia de Huasco, lo que equivale a una extraccion anual de arbustos en un area de entre 573 y 1.112 hectareas. Los principales arbustos nativos utilizados corresponden a Fabiano imbricata (Solanaceae), Balsamocarpon brevifolium (Fabaceae) y Adesmia hystrix (Fabaceae).