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Supplemental lighting (SL) is currently arising increasing interest in Mediterranean greenhouse for efficient year-round production. Compared to traditional high-pressure sodium lamps, light-emitting diode (LED) grow lights provide important advantages [a generally touted higher efficiency in terms of micromoles of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) produced per unit of electricity; a provided light with a spectral distribution used efficiently by plants; the possibility to provide specific spectra able to induce specific responses by plants]. In this research we compared the effects of inter-light LEDs ['R+B': red (660 nm) + blue (450 nm) + red (660 nm) light; 'FR': red blue + blue red + infrared (730 nm) light] toward natural light growing conditions ('C', control) on the performance of soilless greenhouse tomato ('DRW 7723' and 'Diamantino' cultivars, both grafted on 'Maxifort'). The experiment was carried out at the experimental farm "La Noria" (Mola di Bari, South Italy). SL was operated automatically by a system composed by a CR1000 datalogger and a quantum sensor: for 16 h d-1, the system evaluated every 4 s the incoming sunlight in the greenhouse, and turned on the LED light bars whenever the ambient PPFD dropped below 200 ?mol m-2 s-1 until the PPFD from sunlight rose above the set-point again. The duration of the supplemental light activation ranged from about 7 to 16 h d-1 (values registered in October 2018 and November-December-January 2019, respectively) depending on the ambient light conditions during the growing cycle. Model equations describing daily light integral (DLI) trends inside the greenhouse and power consumption as affected by light conditions were obtained. Plants grown without SL showed, on average, 19% lower yield and 16% lower fruits number than tomato plants grown with SL. Also, water use efficiency and fruit quality traits were positively affected, but the response can be highly dependent on the cultivar.

The aim of this study was to test Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile seagrass residues (leaves and fibers) as growing media component to improve the nutritional quality of two different brassica microgreens (Mizuna and Rapini). We hypothesized that addition of posidonia residues in the substrate would result in higher concentration of certain mineral nutrients in the edible parts of plants. Substrates were obtained by mixing leaves and fibers, each material at the rate of 25, 50 and 75% (v/v), with a peat based commercial substrate, that was also used at 100% rate as a control treatment. Two experiments were carried out (Experiment 1: Mizuna microgreens production in growth chamber conditions; Experiment 2: Mizuna and Rapini microgreens production in greenhouse conditions). Plant growth measurements and chemical analysis on edible parts (mineral tissue composition and main bioactive compounds - polyphenol, chlorophylls and carotenoids contents) were performed in order to evaluate the effects of the different substrates on growth and nutritional composition of brassica microgreens. In order to evaluate the consumer safety, daily intake, percentage of recommended daily allowance for I (RDA-I) and hazard quotient (HQ) for I intake through consumption of 50 and 100 g portions of Rapini microgreens were calculated. Posidonia in the growing media mixtures increased I and B content in edible parts of microgreens. The calculated HQ underlines the safety of these products. Results confirm the possibility to improve nutritional profile of brassica microgreens by using this natural material as a growing media component, resulting in a sustainable approach.

Computer Vision Systems (CVS) represent a contactless and non-destructive tool to evaluate and monitor the quality of fruits and vegetables. This research paper proposes an innovative CVS, using a Random Forest model to automatically select the relevant features for classification, thereby avoiding their choice through a cumbersome and error-prone work of human designers. Moreover, three color correction techniques were evaluated and compared, in terms of classification performance to identify the best solution to provide consistent color measurements. The proposed CVS was applied to fresh-cut rocket, produced under greenhouse soilless cultivation conditions differing for the irrigation management strategy and the fertilization level. The first aim of this study was to objectively estimate the quality levels (QL) occurring during storage. The second aim was to non-destructively, and in a contactless manner, identify the cultivation approach using the digital images of the obtained product. The proposed CVS achieved an accuracy of about 95% in QL assessment and about 65–70% in the discrimination of the cultivation approach.

Landraces of ‘Carosello’ (Cucumis melo L.) are a typical expression of Apulia’s agro-biodiversity and are consumed in the same way as cucumbers. The aim of this research was to valorize the cultivation of a local variety of ‘Carosello’, extending the cultivation period and valorizing a part of the fruits that are generally wasted (endosperm). To accomplish this, a local variety called ‘Carosello leccese’ was grown in a greenhouse during the fall season under red + blue and red + blue + far red light-emitting diodes (LED) interlight. Yield, morphology, color and biochemical composition of the external and internal part of the fruit were evaluated. Although yield increased by 26% under supplemental light, the fruit quality was not influenced by LED application. However, the exocarp was greener (chlorophylls) and more yellow (carotenoids) than the mesocarp. Finally, the endosperm, which is the part of the fruit that is generally wasted, showed the highest polyphenols content, proving to be an important source of nutraceutical compounds. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the nutritional value of the endosperm is comparable or higher than the external part of the fruit, but further studies will be necessary to valorize it from a culinary perspective.

It is well known that the adoption of the Mediterranean diet (MD) can reduce the risk of some diseases, such as cardiovascular ones, thanks to its distinctive nutrients intake that includes carbohydrates at low glycemic index, large amount of dietary fiber, and unsaturated fatty acids, as well as antioxidants and antiinflammatory compounds. At the same time, the MD can be considered much more than a simple “diet” since it can be considered as a dynamic lifestyle with all its diversity, which translates in “several” diets, just as there are several traditional cuisines in the Mediterranean Basin. The MD also represents an important legacy that should be safeguarded not only for its health effects but also for the importance as a cultural heritage. This chapter aims to describe history and background of the MD, its nutritional traits and effects on human health as well as its link with sustainability and agrobiodiversity through culinary examples of the several Mediterranean regions. By combining agrobiodiversity and innovations in both gastronomy and agri-food sector, it can aspire to a “next generation” of food products that promote the MD by linking sustainability and high-quality production. Finally, it is possible to hypothesize a “culinary fusion” of both traditions and ingredients coming from different Mediterranean regions.

In the Mediterranean region, tomato plants are often cultivated in two short cycles per year to avoid the heat of summer and the low solar radiation of winter. Supplementary light (SL) makes it possible to cultivate during the dark season. In this experiment, a tomato F1 hybrid cultivar DRW7723 was cultivated in a greenhouse for a fall-winter cycle. After transplant, light emitting diode (LED) interlighting, with two light spectra (red + blue vs. red + blue + far-red) was applied as SL. Plant growth, yield, gas exchange, nutrient solution (NS) consumption, and fruit quality were analyzed. In general, the effects of adding far-red radiation were not visible on the parameters analyzed, although the yield was 27% higher in plants grown with SL than those grown without. Tomatoes had the same average fresh weight between SL treatments, but the plants grown with SL produced 16% more fruits than control. Fruit quality, gas exchange and NS uptake were not influenced by the addition of far-red light. Interlighting is, therefore, a valid technique to increase fruit production in winter but at our latitude the effects of adding far-red radiation are mitigated by available sunlight.

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) is a wild edible plant, traditionally consumed in the Mediterranean area and recently proposed as a new ready-to-eat vegetable, it is also called the &ldquo, vegetable for long life&rdquo, because of the high contents of several healthy compounds. Although boron (B) is not considered to be essential for humans, a daily intake of about 2 mg to obtain positive effects on aging in adult men and women has been suggested. In this study, two genotypes of purslane (wild collected and commercial variety) are grown by using a hydroponic system with three boron (B) levels in the nutrient solution (NS) (0.3 mg/L&mdash, control, 3 mg/L&mdash, low level of biofortification, and 6 mg/L&mdash, high level of biofortification) in order to increase the B content in the edible parts of the plant. The crop yield, color traits, and content of glucose, fructose, total phenols, chlorophylls, carotenoids, mineral elements (Al, B, Ca, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, and Zn), nitrate, and oxalate are analyzed. Independent of the genotype, the B content in edible purslane was successfully increased in comparison with the control, obtaining 1.8- to 10.7-fold higher values of B tissue concentrations by using, respectively, 3 and 6 mg/L of B in the NS without affecting crop performances. From a nutritional point of view, the average daily intake of B could be satisfied by consuming about 75 or 48 g of purslane, grown by using 3 and 6 mg/L B level in the NS, respectively. Apart from B and Fe, the content of mineral elements in edible parts of purslane was not strongly influenced by different B levels in the NS but it was affected by genotypes. A lower sugar content was found in wild purslane grown with the highest B level. A higher content of both chlorophylls and carotenoids was found in the control but only for the commercial genotype. No differences in oxalate content were observed among B levels in the NS, while only in the case of wild genotype, we found a lower nitrate content when a B concentration of 3 mg/L was used in the NS. In conclusion, we demonstrated the possibility of using the floating hydroponic system, combined with specific B concentrations in the NS composition, as a method to calibrate the B uptake in edible parts of purslane.

In literature, the parameters of salinity tolerance of the main cultivated species are known, but are missing for many minor species such as wild rocket, whose cultivation in many areas of southern Italy affected by salinity is growing. Therefore, a research has been carried out i) to evaluate the response to salinity in water use, water use efficiency, yield characteristics and morfological features, and ii) identify the salinity tolerance parameters of two genotypes of wild rocket: Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC and D. muralis (L.) DC. The study was carried out in the spring of 2007 and 2008 in Policoro (MT), southern Italy, under unheated plastic greenhouse conditions. Wild rocket was sown in plastic pots containing 20 dm3 of soil. For each genotype, six soil salinity levels were compared, obtained by accurately mixing before sowing the soil with 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.5 and 5.5 g dm−3 of NaCl + CaCl2 1:1 (on a weight basis). Irrigation was performed with fresh water having electrical conductivity of 0.5 dS m−1. In each year, 3 harvests were performed; water use and the main production and plant growth parameters were recorded. D. tenuifolia provided a yield 47.3% higher than D. muralis. By rising salinity, progressive decline in marketable yield and growth of the leaves was recorded, while the dry matter content increased. The increase in salinity has led to the progressive reduction of water use in both genotypes. From moderate salinity values (about 5.5 dS m−1), the reduction in yield water use efficiency as a result of increased salinity has been observed. In addition, salinity reduced specific leaf area and increased leaf succulence. Both genotypes rank among moderately salt sensitive species, according to Maas and Hoffman's model (1977). However, D. tenuifolia, with a critical threshold of 1.98 dS m−1 and a slope of 6.61% m dS−1, showed a slightly higher tolerance than D. muralis (threshold 1.34 dS m−1 and slope 7.25% m dS−1). Reduction in yield due to salinity occurred mainly for the decrease in leaf size and, secondly, number of leaves.

In agriculture, soilless cropping represents the most suitable cultivation technique apt to achieve a theoretical 100 % efficiency of water and nutrient use. This is possible through a high control of input streams in the cultivation system. Soilless cultivation indeed allows high precision in nutrient and water management so that particular agronomic techniques, which are risky in other cultivation systems (e.g., nutrient depletion or the maintenance of low nutrient concentrations in the root zone), can be managed more safely under soilless conditions. Even in the so-called open (free-drain) cycles, water and nutrient losses can be minimized by the combination of sensing technologies and nutrient delivery strategies aiming at “zero emissions”. However, soilless cropping allows collection and reuse of the drainage in closed growing systems, thereby avoiding or minimizing water and nutrient losses into the environment. The main challenge when managing closed systems in southern Europe conditions is usually the progressive salinization of the recirculating solution because of saline irrigation waters often available in many in coastal areas of the Mediterranean. The use of alternative water sources like rainwater or desalinated water can prevent this problem, but their availability is limited. Advanced recirculation strategies have demonstrated a high potential for reusing the solution under saline conditions with optimal use and minimal discharge of nutrients. Hence, there is currently enough knowledge to support a larger application of closed soilless systems in Mediterranean conditions. On the other hand, proper choices in terms of cultivation facilities and structures and plant material can be relevant to achieve high water and nutrient use efficiency. The main relevant techniques (e.g., nutrient solution management strategies, and right choice of planting material) and technologies (e.g., sensing technologies and greenhouse structures) to minimize water and nutrient losses from soilless-grown vegetable crops in southern Europe are reviewed in this paper.

Puglia region is particularly rich in agro-biodiversity, representing an example of how local vegetables varieties can still strongly interact with modern horticulture. Unfortunately, the genetic diversity of vegetable crops in this region has been eroded, due to several factors such as abandonment of rural areas, ageing of the farming population, and failure to pass information down the generations. This article summarizes the objectives, methodological approach and results of the project &ldquo, Biodiversity of the Puglia&rsquo, s vegetable crops (BiodiverSO)&rdquo, an integrated project funded by Puglia Region Administration under the 2007&ndash, 2013 and 2014&ndash, 2020 Rural Development Program (RDP). Results were reported for each of the eight activities of the project. Moreover, the Polignano carrot (a local variety of Daucus carota L.) was described as a case study, since several tasks have been performed within all eight project activities with the aim of verifying the effectiveness of these actions in terms of safeguarding for this genetic resource strongly linked with local traditions. BiodiverSO is an example of protection and recovery of vegetables at risk of genetic erosion that could help to identify and valorize much of the Puglia&rsquo, s plant germplasm.

The effects of saline stress on the silicon (Si) tissue enrichment (Si biofortification) of ready-to-eat “baby leaf” chicory in hydroponic floating system were studied. Four combinations of Si and NaCl levels in the nutrient solution were compared: i) 0 mM Si - 0 mM NaCl (‘Control’); ii) 3.6 Si - 0 NaCl (‘Si’); iii) 0 Si - 50 NaCl (‘NaCl’); and iv) 3.6 Si - 50 NaCl (‘Si + NaCl’). Si in combination with salt stress enhanced the Si tissue enrichment with respect to biofortification under control conditions [11.4 vs 3.06 mg 100 g−1 fresh weight (FW), respectively]. However, Si was not able to restore growth of plants under salinity compared to normal conditions. Bioaccessible Si in chicory under ‘Si + NaCl’ treatment was the highest in the experiment (3.73 mg 100 g−1 FW). The nitrate content was not influenced by salinity neither by Si, while the oxalate content was extremely low in all treatments, thus not compromising the enhanced nutritional value of the biofortified chicory. Application of salt stress could be considered an effective strategy to enhance the silicon tissue enrichment of hydroponic chicory under biofortification process.

Dielectric moisture sensors are particularly suitable for irrigation management in greenhouse soilless production. Identifying the practical effects of substrate water content set-points on crop performance is crucial for successful sensor-based irrigation. We designed and constructed a prototype cloud-connected system for wireless, sensor based irrigation management, and tested it on basil, grown in a perlite-coco (1:1 v:v) soilless substrate under greenhouse conditions. Dielectric moisture/salinity sensors (GS3, Decagon Devices, Pullman - WA, USA) were used. The study, with two subsequent experiments, assessed i) the effects of a progressive decline in substrate water availability, corresponding to moisture levels from water holding capacity to 0.10 m(3) m(-3), on the gas exchange parameters and leaf water status of basil plants; ii) the short-term recovery response of plants when re watered after substrate water content has decreased to different levels; iii) the effects of different irrigation set points (0.40, 0.30 and 0.20 m(3) m(-3)) and leaching rates (approximate to 8% or approximate to 18%) on the basil crop performance over a complete growing cycle. No physiological stress responses were observed on basil plants when moisture level was higher than approximately 0.20 m(3) m(-3), while plants showed drought symptoms at approximately 0.17 m(3) m(-3), corresponding to a substrate matric potential and hydraulic conductivity of -300 hPa and 0.0005 cm day(-1), respectively. Photosynthesis and leaf water potential recovered to values similar to non-stress conditions following a short drought (with moisture level as low as 0.10 m(3) m(-3)). Basil growth was similar when plants were grown with irrigation set-points of 0.40, 0.30 or 0.20 m(3) m(-3) for the complete growing cycle. Fresh weight tended to increase when a higher leaching rate was used, probably because leaching lowered substrate EC. Water use efficiency (basil fresh weight/unit water used) was similar at different irrigation set points and leaching rates. Our results indicate that the use of a wireless sensor network for real-time sensing of substrate water status, combined with precise information on the effects of water availability levels on plants, is an effective tool for precision irrigation management of greenhouse soilless basil.

Irrigation is a crucial practice that operators often perform empirically, relying on their own experience, especially in productive areas characterized by low technology agriculture (i.e. several parts of Mediterranean countries). One of the possible approach for proper irrigation scheduling is measuring the soil water potential, simple and easy to manage. The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of two different irrigation regimes (obtained by the use of tensiometers connected to a relay controller) on yield, fruit quality and water consumption of greenhouse tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv Naxos) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L., cv Sarig, in the first cropping cycle, and the local landrace ‘Mezzo lungo di Polignano’, in the second one) grown on a silty-clay soil in Mediterranean conditions. For each species, two tests (August-February and February-July cycle) were carried out in a plastic greenhouse-tunnel. Drip irrigation was adopted, with automated schedule based on tensiometer readings. Two water potential irrigation set-points were compared: -100 and -400 hPa for tomato and -100 and -300 hPa for cucumber, in both cycles. Yield (marketable and unmarketable) and quality traits of fruits (soluble solids, dry matter and titratable acidity) were determined. Water consumption was calculated at the end of each crop cycle. In the first cycle, the two water regimes did not affect the yield of tomato and cucumber. The cucumber irrigated at the lowest soil water potential set-point produced fruits with 8% higher dry matter. In the second cycle, the tomato irrigated at the potential of -400 hPa showed a 40% lower yield (mainly due to the lower fruit size) compared to that of plants irrigated at -100 hPa. However, the fruits of tomato plants irrigated at -400 hPa showed total soluble solids, dry matter and titratable acidity, respectively 41, 45 and 59% higher than plants irrigated at -100 hPa. In both crop cycles, a water saving of 35% and 46%, on average, for tomato and cucumber, respectively, was obtained using the lowest potential as irrigation set-point. Proper use of tensiometer could allow a better use of water resource. Selection of proper water potential set-points according to the cultivation season is crucial for satisfactory results. The positive effects of a controlled and moderate water stress on fruit quality should be taken into account.

Superabsorbent hydrogels are a particular class of gels, obtained by chemical stabilization of hydrophilic polymers in a tridimensional network. Hydrogels have been widely proposed over the last 40 years for agricultural use with the aim to ameliorate water availability for plants, by increasing water holding properties of growing media (soils or soilless substrates). Most of the traditional hydrogels on the market are acrylate-based products, thus not biodegradable. Due to the increasing attention for environmental protection issues, biodegradable hydrogels arise lively interest for potential commercial application in agriculture. In this study, we evaluated a novel class of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels, totally biodegradable and biocompatible, for agricultural use. The objectives of the tests carried out were: 1) to verify the ability of the hydrogel to modify the water retention properties of the growing media (soils and soilless substrates); 2) to study the effects on the growth of plants grown on media amended with the hydrogel. Water retention curve of a sandy soil amended with 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0% (w/w) of hydrogel was determined using a Richard's pressure plate apparatus. The hydrogel modified the soil water retention properties. The soil moisture at field capacity increased with the highest hydrogel percentage up to 400% compared to the not amended soil, and at wilting point (-15 bar) was similar to that at field capacity of the not amended soil. When added to perlite, a low water holding capacity soilless substrate, 1 or 2% (w/w) of hydrogel increased the container capacity of 28 and 48%, respectively, with no decrease of air capacity. Tests revealed absence of phytotoxicity of the hydrogel, and cultivation trials on cucumber (on soil) and sweet basil (in soilless conditions) showed a general overall enhancement of plant growth and quality when hydrogel was added to growing media. The tested hydrogel showed to be suitable for potential use in agriculture. Its employment should be further evaluated under a cost-effective perspective. (C) 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Compost has been recently suggested as an alternative to peat for the preparation of growing substrates in soilless cultivation systems. However, some physico-chemical properties of compost may reduce plant performance and endanger the quality of productions, in particular for possible heavy metal accumulation in edible parts. This study aims at evaluating the suitability of a municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) and a sewage sludge compost (SSC) as components of growing media for the soilless cultivation of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Heavy metal content of SSC complied with legislation limits but, in MSWC, it exceeded (Cu, Pb) or was very close (Cd, Zn) to safe limits. A greenhouse experiment was carried out by cultivating four lettuce cultivars ("Maximus," "Murai," "Patagonia," and "Aleppo") in pots containing a mixture of MSWC and perlite (MSWC + P), SSC and perlite (SSC + P), or peat and perlite (peat + P), the latter used as control. Plant biometric parameters measured after 72 days of growth revealed that the yield of plants cultivated on SSC + P was similar to control plants, independently of the cultivar. Conversely, MSWC + P suppressed in general the biomass production, especially for Murai and Patagonia cultivars. Compared to peat + P, both compost-based substrates reduced the leaf accumulation of heavy metals, with a major effect in Maximus plants. The levels of Cd and Pb in the edible part were always below the safe limits imposed by European regulation. Therefore, risks of heavy metal intake in food chain associated with the replacement of peat with compost in the growing media are negligible, even when a compost with a significant amount of heavy metals is used. Besides compost quality monitoring, also an appropriate varietal choice is crucial to obtain good yields and safe products.

Peat is a non-renewable resource and its extraction contributes to the degradation of wetland ecosystems. In order to reduce the peat use in nursery, two composts prepared from yard wastes were evaluated as a substrate component for producing vegetable seedlings for transplantation. Two experiments with tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars ‘Naxos’ and ‘TCP 9147’ and pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars ‘Solero’ and ‘Logos’ were set up in a greenhouse. In each experiment two composts were tested: “Cp”, obtained from yard wastes + beached residues of marine plant posidonia [Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile – 20% of total fresh weight], and “C”, obtained only from yard wastes. Each compost was mixed with commercial peat in the amount of 0 (control), 25, 50, 75 and 100% (v/v). Results from the study suggest that, for both species, the best yield was obtained with the substrate prepared by mixing the peat with 25% of Cp.

We compared the effects of: 1) timer- ('Timer') and soil moisture sensor-controlled irrigation on soilless lettuce; 2) two volumetric water content (?) thresholds for irrigation (0.30 ('?=0.3') and 0.40 m3?m-3 ('?=0.4')). The most nutrient solution (NS) was applied in 'Timer' where the lowest water use efficiency was observed, with 17 and 42% less NS used in '?=0.4' and '?=0.3', respectively. Irrigation volumes followed the plant water needs in the sensor-controlled treatments, with little or no leaching, while 18% of leaching was recorded in 'Timer'. Plants in 'Timer' and '?=0.4' had higher fresh weights (24%) and leaf area (13%) than plants in ?=0.3. Similar dry weight was observed among treatments but percent dry matter was 20% higher in '?=0.3'. Gas exchanges and leaf tissue chemical composition were similar in all treatments, but nitrate concentration was lower in the '?=0.3' plants. Precision sensor-controlled irrigation based on ? measurements is an effective tool to increase the overall WUE and to improve the quality of soilless-grown lettuce by acting on the substrate moisture level.

Automatic irrigation scheduling based on real-time measurement of soilless substrate water status has been recognized as a promising approach for efficient greenhouse irrigation management. Identification of proper irrigation set points is crucial for optimal crop performance, both in terms of yield and quality, and optimal use of water resources. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of irrigation management based on matric potential control on growth, plant–water relations, yield, fruit quality traits, and water-use efficiency of subirrigated (through bench system) soilless tomato. Tensiometers were used for automatic irrigation control. Two cultivars, “Kabiria” (cocktail type) and “Diana” (intermediate type), and substrate water potential set-points (−30 and −60 hPa, for “Diana,” and −30, −60, and −90 hPa for “Kabiria”), were compared. Compared with −30 hPa, water stress (corresponding to a −60 hPa irrigation set-point) reduced water consumption (14%), leaf area (18%), specific leaf area (19%), total yield (10%), and mean fruit weight (13%), irrespective of the cultivars. At −60 hPa, leaf-water status of plants, irrespective of the cultivars, showed an osmotic adjustment corresponding to a 9% average osmotic potential decrease. Total yield, mean fruit weight, plant water, and osmotic potential decreased linearly when −30, −60, and −90 hPa irrigation set-points were used in “Kabiria.” Unmarketable yield in “Diana” increased when water stress was imposed (187 vs. 349 g·plant−1, respectively, at −30 and −60 hPa), whereas the opposite effect was observed in “Kabiria,” where marketable yield loss decreased linearly [by 1.05 g·plant−1 per unit of substrate water potential (in the tested range from −30 to −90 hPa)]. In the second cluster, total soluble solids of the fruit and dry matter increased irrespective of the cultivars. In the seventh cluster, in “Diana,” only a slight increase was observed from −30 vs. −60 hPa (3.3 and 1.3%, respectively, for TSS and dry matter), whereas in “Kabiria,” the increase was more pronounced (8.7 and 12.0%, respectively, for TSS and dry matter), and further reduction in matric potential from −60 to −90 hPa confirmed the linear increase for both parameters. Both glucose and fructose concentrations increased linearly in “Kabiria” fruits on decreasing the substrate matric potential, whereas in “Diana,” there was no increase. It is feasible to act on matric potential irrigation set-points to control plant response in terms of fruit quality parameters. Precise control of substrate water status may offer the possibility to steer crop response by enhancing different crop-performance components, namely yield and fruit quality, in subirrigated tomato. Small-sized fruit varieties benefit more from controlled water stress in terms of reduced unmarketable yield loss and fruit quality improvements.

Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.), an emerging halophyte species, represents a nutritious and refined food product. In this study, the effect on yield and quality of potted sea fennel grown on three posidonia (Podisonia oceanica (L.) Delile)-based composts (a municipal organic solid waste compost, a sewage sludge compost and a green compost) and a peat-based substrate was analyzed. Composts were used both pure and mixed with peat at a dose of 50% on a volume basis. We hypothesized that the halophytic nature of this plant might overcome the limitations of high-salinity compost-based growing media. The growth parameters, color traits and trace metals content (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) of the edible parts were compared. Independently of the substrates, the average total and edible yields were 51 and 30 g plant&minus, 1, respectively, while the average waste portion was about 41%. The use of posidonia-based compost did not affect the color traits of sea fennel plants as compared with samples grown on the commercial peat-based substrate. In general, potted sea fennel grown on both posidonia-based composts and commercial peat-based substrate appeared a good source of essential micronutrients. Only a weak reduction of Fe and Mn concentrations was observed in plants grown on posidonia-based composts, especially when used at the highest dose. Independently of the growing medium, the content of potentially hazardous trace elements (Cd and Pb) in the edible parts of sea fennel was always below the maximum admissible limits fixed by the European legislation. Results indicate that posidonia-based composts can be used as a sustainable peat substitute for the formulation of soilless mixtures to grow potted sea fennel plants, even up to a complete peat replacement.

The availability of good-quality irrigation water is decreasing worldwide, and salinity is an increasingly important agricultural problem. To determine whether detrimental effects of NaCl on plant growth and leaf physiology can be minimized by additional Ca2+ supply, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) ‘Supersweet 100’ was grown hydroponically. The basic nutrient solution contained 11.1 mm NO3 − and 2.8 mm Ca2+. Three levels of NaCl (14.1, 44.4, and 70.4 mm) were added to the basic solution to determine Na+ effects on leaf physiology and growth. To determine if Ca2+ could alleviate the toxic effects of Na+, treatments with 10 or 20 mm Ca2+ combined with 44.4 or 70 mm NaCl were included as well. To distinguish between osmotic and ion-specific effects, there were three treatments in which all nutrient concentrations were increased (without NaCl) to obtain electrical conductivity (EC) levels similar to those of the NaCl treatments. Nutrient solutions with 70.4 mm NaCl reduced leaf photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, gas-phase conductance, carboxylation efficiency, and dark-adapted quantum yield. Inclusion of 20 mm Ca2+ prevented these effects of NaCl. NaCl also decreased leaf length and elongation rate. This could not be prevented by adding extra Ca2+ to the solution; reductions in leaf elongation were due to osmotic effects rather than to Na+ specifically. Likewise, plant dry weight was negatively correlated with solution EC, suggesting an osmotic effect. Leaf area development apparently was more important for dry matter accumulation than leaf photosynthesis. Adding 20 mm Ca2+ to the 70 mm NaCl solution reduced the Na+ concentration in the leaf from 79 to 24 mg·g−1.

Irrigated agriculture is dependent on adequate water supply and its quality. Water used for irrigation can vary greatly in quality, depending upon type and quantity of dissolved salts. They originate from dissolution or weathering of the rocks and soils, and by intrusion of seawater into the river and underground water resources. The problem of saltwater intrusion due to groundwater over-exploitation is one of the major threats in the coastal areas of Italy, as occurs in Apulia region, where the chronic water shortage forces farmers to use saline irrigation water. Salinity is detrimental for many crops because of its negative effects on the physiology and production. The salinity tolerance, as well as the genotype, is influenced by several agronomic and environmental parameters as air temperature and relative humidity (RH). Thus, conditions leading to a reduction of transpiration, as lower temperature and higher RH, can contribute to greater tolerance to salinity. Thus, the techniques that reduce the transpiration rate and heat stress of the crops could have a positive effect on salinity tolerance. Among those there is the kaolin-based particle film technology (Pft) that employs a multi-functional, environmentally friendly material effective in pest control, mitigation of heat stress, and to produce fruit and vegetables of good quality. The presence of mineral particles over leaves and fruit surfaces interferes with physiological processes, mainly with heat and radiation balance and gas exchange. Therefore, it was hypothesized that the Pft could contribute to increasing the salt tolerance. In consideration that the tomato, species moderately sensitive to salinity, is a major vegetable crops present in the areas of Apulia at risk of salinity, to verify the hypotheses, was investigated the effects of Pft on yield and quality, and water use efficiency of field grown tomato. The research was carried out in three years on tomato for processing, irrigated with brackish water, in Southern Italy. Treatments were i) three salinity levels of irrigation water (Electrical Conductivity of water = 0.5, 5, and 10 dS m-1), ii) tomato plants treated or not with kaolin, and iii) two cultivars in each year, arranged in a split plot design with three replications. The salinity increase caused the reduction in yield mainly for declining fruit weight, but the fruit quality was better in terms of dry matter content and total soluble solids. In addition, salinity increased the blossom-end rot mainly on cultivar with elongated fruits. Pft, overall, as average of three years, improved total (12.7%) and marketable yield (17.7%), fruit weight (8.1%) and harvest index (10.3%), and reduced fruit sunburn by 76.4%. In addition, kaolin contributed to the declining in insect attack to the fruit (58.7%), improvement in total solid soluble (6.2%) and redness (10.2% the skin and 16.6% the pulp) of fruits, and increased yield water use efficiency (Y_WUE) (19.7%). Furthermore, kaolin mitigated detrimental effects of salinity on yield, through a minor decrease, between the control irrigated with fresh water and the more saline treatment, as average of three years, in total (22.8%) and marketable yield (34.8%), fruit weight (21.1%), biomass water use efficiency (B_WUE) (22.9%) and Y_WUE (34.7%). The use of kaolin-based particle film technology may be an effective tool to alleviate salinity stress in tomato production in Mediterranean environment.

The increasing availability of low-cost and reliable substrate moisture sensors offers interesting perspectives for rational and automatic rrigation management of soilless greenhouse crops and for research on plant water relations. The knowledge of the effects of different substrate volumetric water content (VWC) levels on plant growth is crucial for the determination of proper irrigation set-points. An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of different VWC levels on soilless tomato growth and water relations. Tomato plants were grown in a greenhouse in perlite bags. An automatic irrigation system used substrate moisture sensors to control irrigation solenoid valves, in order to keep growing media at four different VWC levels (0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.30 m3?m-3). The system was able to get the substrate VWC at the desired different set-points. Substrate water potential was monitored during the experiment using tensiometers. The four VWC levels resulted, respectively, in a mean substrate water potential of -130, -101, -42 and -34 hPa. Plant growth was similar for plants grown at 0.30 and 0.25 m3?m-3 in terms of leaf area, fresh and dry weight, with higher values than plants grown at 0.20 and 0.15 m3?m-3. Plant water status was affected by the VWC level in the substrate, with higher and similar values of total leaf water potential for plants grown at the two highest VWC levels than those grown at lower VWC. The most severe effects of water stress were observed on plants grown at 0.15 m3?m-3 which showed the lowest leaf relative water content (respectively 64.4% vs 84.8% at higher VWC levels) and membrane stability index (respectively 68.6% vs 83.9% at higher VWC levels). The water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity analysis performed on the perlite substrate used in this experiment revealed little or no available water below a VWC of about 0.15 m3?m-3. However, plants grown at 0.15 m3?m-3, were able to uptake water from the growing media and thus to survive, although showing reduced growth and symptoms of water stress. Results seem to confirm that soilless growing media generally hold easily available water in a matric potential range from 0 to -100 hPa, with the majority of free available water present between matric potentials of 0 to -50 hPa.

In view of increasing water demand by other sectors, and expected reduction of water availability in the future, it is necessary to adopt water management strategies which aim at water saving while maintaining satisfactory levels of production. One of these strategies is to improve water use efficiency through the application of deficit irrigation (DI) which deliberately sustains some degree of water deficit and yield reduction. The expectation of these strategies is that any yield reduction will be not significant as compared with the benefits gained from water saving. Partial root-zone deficit irrigation (PRD) is a DI technique to save irrigation water without much yield reduction. In fact, several authors report that when only part of the root system undergoes water-stress, abscissic acid (ABA) may be produced. This is transported through the xylem towards the leaves and reduces stomatal opening. On the contrary, poor root function reduces the production of cytokinins which are responsible for stomatal opening. These two aspects may combine to reduce stomatal opening and, consequently, gaseous exchange between the leaves and the surrounding environment. This study focused on the effect of DI via PRD on gas exchange, assimilated distribution, yield, and water use efficiency (WUE), to acquire useful information for the possible application of this technique on eggplant crop. Research has been carried out in southern Italy to study the split-root water stress effect on some physiological and morphological parameters of eggplant (Solanum melongena L. cv Tania). Plants were grown in pots and the root system was divided into two equal halves by a plastic wall. The pots were put in open air and the soil surface was covered by a waterproof film to protect the soil from rain water. The following treatments were compared: 1) the entire rhizosphere (both halves) well watered during the whole vegetative cycle (WW); 2) half a rhizosphere well watered and the other half water stressed after the beginning of blooming until the end of the vegetative cycle (WS1); 3) half a rhizosphere well watered and the other half water stressed, 30 days later in respect to treatment WS1, and until the end of the vegetative cycle (WS2). It was adopted a randomized blocks layout with 5 replicates. The results showed that stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration and assimilation rate (A) decreased at beginning of partial root water shortage cycle, but after the first days of plant adaptation to the new situation, was observed a recovery in this parameters, mainly in A. The reduction of gs is likely to depend not only by the low water potential in the xylem but also by ABA and cytokinins produced by the stressed root system. The shoot/root ratio decreased in PRD plants, mainly in WS1. In PRD plants was observed a reduction in yield, by around 13 (WS1) and 9% (WS2) but, because of lower evapotranspiration experienced by these plants, the WUE increased significantly. The application of DI via PRD at cultivation of eggplant can be an effective strategy to save water for this crop in areas where the water resource is limited.

Anaerobic digestion is a technique of growing interest as a promising option for waste disposal and green energy production. The anaerobic effluents (digestate) are a mixture of water (about 95 %) and partially degraded organic matter. Afterwards separation of the two components (liquid and solid), the inorganic ions with a fertilizer value are concentrated mainly in the liquid one. The main limitation to their agricultural use could be the sodium chloride content derived from the initial matrices and the potential phytotoxicity originated from partially decomposed organic matter. In this study the main agrochemical characteristics and the phytotoxicity of eight digestates (derived from co-digestion of posidonia residues with different pretreatments - grinding, washing and autoclave treatments - and a mixture of urban sludges and organic wastes) were evaluated in order to assess their potential use as a source of water and nutrient elements in vegetable seedling production. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Ezra) seedlings for transplant were produced on peat based substrate. Digestates liquid fraction (LD), obtained after centrifugation, was used to integrate the nutrient solution at rate of 1:10 v/v; a standard nutrient solution for lettuce seedling cultivation was used as a control (NS). Main chemical properties (pH, EC, inorganic ions content) of LD, shoot and root fresh and dry weight, leaf area, root morphology, root/shoot ratio were determined. Different content of Cl- and Na+ were found in LD in relation to the posidonia residues pre-treatment; moreover LD contained in general high concentration of NH4+, K2+, Mg2+ and Ca2+. Plants cultivated using LD showed a root/shoot ratio (important to ensure good engraftment after transplanting) not significally different from plants grown with NS. The use of LD produced a fresh water saving of 10% and the reduction of mineral fertilizers use. The liquid fraction of digestates could be a good source of macro nutrients and water, and first results indicate that could be re-utilized in relation to its salts content as nutrient solution for lettuce seedling production and likely in soilless cultivation systems.

This report contains a description of the activities carried out by CNR-ISPA (P4) in the framework of WP6 - Specialized research actions, Deliverable 6.5.3 - Experiments regarding the use of saline water for cultivations in greenhouse. The activities focused on testing sensor-based irrigation management strategies in greenhouse in saline conditions, with the aim to provide tools for irrigation decision and rational leaching control. We implemented both laboratory and on-field activities, focusing on tomato as the most important greenhouse vegetable crop in Mediterranean environment. Beside an introductive examination of the state of the art and of the concepts at the base of the carried out activities, a description of the experiments and of the results is included in this report. We outline that the full dataset from the experiments is at the moment under use or consideration for publication in scientific international journals, with the aim to present the outcomes of the IRMA project to the wide scientific community. Therefore, in order to be compliant with the universal requirement for scientific publication (the material should not have been previously published elsewhere, except in a preliminary form) the repornt does not include the full set of data; however, an exhaustive overview of the findings of the project activities is provided. All the publications that will arise from the activities carried out in the project will clearly refer to the IRMA project as source of funding for the conducted research.

SummaryThe disposal of seaweed [Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile] residues represents an environmental and economic problem in the Mediterranean Basin. In this study, two composts (Cp20 and Cp60) were prepared using posidonia residues mixed at different rates [20% or 60% (w/w) on a fresh weight (FW) basis, respectively] with grapevine prunings and vegetable waste. The feasibility of their use as partial substitutes for peat in the growing media used during transplant production of melon and tomato seedlings was assessed. Growing media were prepared by mixing Cp20 or Cp60 with commercial peat at rates of 25%, 50%, or 75% (v/v). Peat at 100% (v/v) was also tested as a control. The main physical and chemical properties of these seven growing media on shoot and root FWs and dry weights (DWs), leaf areas, root morphology, and the mineral composition of shoot tissues were determined. The six growing media obtained using posidonia-based composts had adequate physical and physico-chemical properties. In particular,...

Reliable and affordable moisture sensors for measuring the water content in soilless substrates are limited. In this study, we examined the efficacy of two moisture sensors (ECH2O-10 and Theta probe ML2X) for measuring water content in soilless substrates. We developed calibration equations and analyzed the effect of increasing electrical conductivity (EC) and substrate temperature on the voltage output of probes. We found that a single equation (one for each probe) could be used to adequately measure water content in different custom-made substrates maintained at low EC and a substrate temperature of ∼23 °C. The calibration equation developed for the Theta probe from substrates maintained at low EC could also be used in two commercial substrates with high EC (2.0–5.0 dS m−1). Further measurements in substrates maintained at different water contents and EC levels indicated that the output of the ECH2O-10 probe, but not the Theta probe, was significantly affected by substrate EC. The lack of a substrate EC effect on the Theta probe readings was surprising, because the probe was sensitive to EC when fertilizer solutions with different ECs were measured. Increasing the temperature of the substrate from 10 to 40 °C increased the voltage output of ECH2O-10 probes by 1.88 mV °C−1, or on average 0.0022 m3 m−3 water content per °C. There was no effect of increasing substrate temperature on the Theta probe. It was concluded that ECH2O-10 probes can be used in greenhouse operations requiring less measurement precision (like irrigation), however for accurate measurements of water content, the Theta probe is preferred.

The availability of good quality irrigation water is decreasing worldwide, and salinity is an increasingly important agricultural problem. To determine whether detrimental effects of NaCl can be minimized by additional Ca2+, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) `Super-sweet 100' was grown hydroponically. The basic nutrient solution contained 11.9 mM NO -3 and 3.2 mM Ca 2+. We added 14.1, 44.4 and 70.4 mM of NaCl to this solution to determine the effect of NaCl and there were treatments with 70 mM NaCl and 10 or 20 mM Ca2+ to look at Ca2+ effects. We also included three treatments in which all nutrient concentrations were increased (without NaCl) to distinguish between osmotic and ion-specific effects. 70.4 mM NaCl reduced leaf photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, gas phase conductance for CO2 diffusion, carboxylation efficiency, and dark-adapted quantum yield of photosystem II. The inclusion of 20 mM Ca2+ prevented these effects of NaCl. NaCl also decreased leaf size and elongation rate, but this could not be prevented by adding extra Ca2+ to the nutrient solution; these were caused by osmotic effects, rather than Na+ specifically. Likewise, plant dry mass was negatively correlated with solution EC, suggesting an osmotic effect. Our results indicate that leaf area development, which was inhibited by high EC, is more important for dry matter accumulation than leaf photosynthesis, which was inhibited by high Na+. Adding 20 mM Ca2+ to the 70 mM NaCl solution reduced the Na+ concentration in the leaf from 79 to 24 mg·g-1, which may explain why Ca2+ alleviates Na+ toxicity.

Sustainability of the soilless greenhouse system is under discussion in open cycle systems, where excess nutrient solution (NS) draining from the substrate is released into the environment. Closed growing systems (CGS) lead to the saving of water and fertilizers. The aim of this research was to compare two CGS: nutrient film technique (NFT) and trough-bench technique [Subirrigation (SUB)]. We report the results of yield and water use efficiency (WUE) of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Kabiria) plants. NFT plants were grown with two electrical conductivity (EC) levels (2-4 and 6-8 dS·m-1) of NS (its highest EC was obtained by increasing all the ions therein). In the SUB system, two water tensions (-4 and –8 kPa) of susbtrate were compared; a NS with an electrical conductivity level of 2 dS·m-1 was used. The tensions were measured through tensiometers. Tomato plants were transplanted at the fourth to fifth true-leaf stage into pots containing 8 L of perlite for SUB. In both CGS, the plants were placed on steel gullies (slope of 2%). Six clusters per plant were harvested. Total and commercial yield were not influenced by the CGS (on average, 1959 and 1853 g/plant, respectively). The average weight of the fruit was lower in the SUB system's plants (40 vs. 43 g/fruit, respectively, for SUB and NFT). Salinity and water stresses resulted in a reduction of 26% of the yield and 16% of the average weight of fruits. The WUE was higher in SUB than NFT (30.7 vs. 26.0 g·L-1, respectively). Salinity stress reduced WUE (29.4 v.s 22.6 g·L-1 with 2–4 and 6–8 dS·m-1, respectively), whereas water stress did not.

Nutrient solutions (NS) containing moderate to high concentrations of salts are frequently supplied to improve the taste of tomato fruits grown in soilless systems. The aim of this study was to determine whether salinity and water stress affect the tomato fruit quality similarly. The research was conducted in Mola di Bari, Italy, during Autumn 2004, and compared the nutrient film technique (NFT) with the trough-bench technique [Subirrigation (SUB)] in terms of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Kabiria) fruit quality. In the NFT, the plants were grown with two electrical conductivity (EC) levels (2–4 and 6–8 dS·m-1) of NS. The highest EC was obtained by increasing all the ions in the NS. In the SUB system, two water tensions (-4 and -8 kPa) of substrate (perlite) were examinated. At harvest, in each cluster (six/plant), fruit dry matter (DM) and total soluble solids (TSS) were determinated. In the fourth and sixth cluster, vitamin C content and titratable acidity were determined. Total yield was not influenced by either soilless system, while the average weight of the fruit was lower in the SUB. The DM and TTS were influenced by soilless system (on average, 6.6 vs 7.3 g/100 g of fresh matter and 5.3 vs. 5.9 °Brix, with NFT and SUB, respectively). Both of the stresses resulted in the increase of DM and TSS, principally in SUB (water stress) in respect to NFT (salinity stress), while vitamin C and titratable acidity were not influenced by soilless system or water/salinity stress (25.2 mg/100 g fresh matter and 0.45 g/100 mL of citric acid juice, respectively). Results of NFT with the highest EC of NS exceeded 9 dS·m-1, without any stress symptoms in the plants, while EC in the SUB system remained unchanged (about 2.5 dS·m-1).

Posidonia [Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile] is a marine phanerogam endemic of the Mediterranean Sea that grows all along the coast forming extensive underwater meadows. Senescent posidonia leaves, together with fibers (residues of rhizomes and decomposed leaves), periodically accumulate along Mediterranean beaches, covering vast areas of coast. Removal and disposal of these large volumes of plant biomasses represent a high cost for local administrations. Therefore, in this experiment, beached residues of posidonia were composted with olive pruning and green wastes with the objective to assess the efficacy of posidonia-based compost (63% on a volume basis) as a peat replacement. The compost was then mixed with a peat-based commercial substrate at rates of 0% (C0, pure peat-based commercial substrate tested as control), 25% (C25), 50% (C50), 75% (C75), and 100% (C100, pure posidonia-based compost) v/v. Mixtures were used as growing media to produce lettuce seedlings for transplant. Two lettuce cultivars (8511RZ and Satine) were tested. Main physical and chemical properties of the five growing media, shoot and root fresh and dry weight, leaf area, root morphology, and elemental leaf tissue composition were studied. Growing media containing posidonia-based compost, C25 and C50 in particular, showed good physical properties. Increasing compost proportions in the mixtures resulted in enhanced: 1) availability of macro- and micronutrients in the growing media; and 2) overall growth parameters of lettuce seedlings, in particular for the cultivar Satine. In conclusion, posidonia-based compost shows a considerable potential as a peat substitute in horticultural substrates; posidonia residues are a low-cost renewable material. In growing media for lettuce seedlings production, posidonia-based compost could be used as a complement to peat at a rate of 25% or 50% to obtain optimal physical properties and to limit the negative effects of high B content, which are typical of posidonia residues.

Food plants biofortification for micronutrients is a tool for the nutritional value improvement of food. Soilless cultivation systems, with the optimal control of plant nutrition, represent a potential effective technique to increase the beneficial element content in plant tissues. Silicon (Si), which proper intake is recently recommended for its beneficial effects on bone health, presents good absorption in intestinal tract from green bean, a high-value vegetable crop. In this study we aimed to obtain Si biofortified green bean pods by using a Si-enriched nutrient solution in soilless system conditions, and to assess the influence of boiling and steaming cooking methods on Si content, color parameters and Si bioaccessibility (by using an in vitro digestion process) of pods. The Si concentration of pods was almost tripled as a result of the biofortification process, while the overall crop performance was not negatively influenced. The Si content of biofortified pods was higher than unbiofortified also after cooking, despite the cooking method used. Silicon bioaccessibility in cooked pods was more than tripled as a result of biofortification, while the process did not affect the visual quality of the product. Our results demonstrated that soilless cultivation can be successfully used for green bean Si biofortification.

Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile is the main marine seagrass endemic of the Mediterranean Sea. From September on, leaves and rhizomes detach off the marine plant and accumulate on beaches in huge amounts, forming banks on the foreshore and backshore of beaches. Offshore residues represent an environmental, economical, social and hygienic problem, because of the great disturbance to the touristic activities, citizens life in urban areas and high costs that the public administrations have to support for managing them (beach cleaning, transport and disposal of such a biomass). Nowadays, current Italian legislation (n. 75/2010) allows the use of posidonia residues as raw material for the production of compost although at a maximum rate of 20% by fresh weight of the composting mixture. High presence of sand mixed to residues after removing from beaches and high salinity levels represent at the moment the main obstacles to the large use of this biomass as raw material for composting. Studies have been conducted, in the framework of the Life09 “Posidonia Residues Integrated Management for Eco-sustainability” (P.R.I.M.E.) project, with the aim to increase the application of posidonia residues for compost production, demonstrating the possibility to effectively separate the sand from the organic material and reduce the salinity levels. Several tests have been carried out with the objective to assess the posidonia-based compost quality. Posidonia-based compost proved to be a good peat substitute for lettuce transplant production and a good growing media component for green-house tomato and lettuce in soilless conditions. According to our studies, beached posidonia wastes could represent a low cost and renewable raw material for com-posting. Posidonia-based compost presents interesting properties and can be used as horticultural growing media component.