Search

Social capital is created by engagement in groups or associations. As a product of social involvement inside and outside of the family, people trust others more. Social commitment leads to activism while expanding social trust and cooperation for mutual benefit. Social capital develops typically through interaction that happens face-to-face, locally, and over a period of time. A large variety of measures are used to assess quantity and quality of social capital in society. The number of associations, types of groups, and intensity of membership in a club are examples of social engagement generating social capital. Scholars are also employing empirical data from longitudinal and cross-national studies. Research looks at family interactions and membership in sports clubs, environmental groups, arts associations, nonprofit organizations, volunteer networks, and a variety of other state institutions. Since the development of social media, social capital also has been measured digitally. Users in online communities show that engagement connects to political action. Although operating electronically, people can still interact socially. Online individuals can become politically involved, and new digital movements have developed from simple social interaction via Twitter. A major concern is the type of social capital generated. Some associations create bridging social capital, a version of social engagement that is inclusive and supportive of bonding across social divides. In this situation, social trust benefits the most from individuals with different backgrounds interacting in a social activity. Other organizations generate bonding social capital, which is exclusive because it focuses on a social bond among similar individuals only, at the exclusion of others. This type of social capital represents the dark side of social engagement that may undermine democracy by creating trust within groups, at the expense of society at large. Social engagement at an early age inside the family, and later in life in recreational associations, generates social capital. As a resource that can benefit all members in a network, social capital creates a community across society.

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an emerging chronic immune and antigen-mediated clinicopathologic disease. During the last 2 decades, the incidence of this condition in children has increased significantly, thanks to practitioners for creating the awareness and higher use of diagnostic endoscopy. We have analysed paediatric literature on EoE focusing on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical findings and diagnostic approach. EoE is pathogenically related to a Th2 inflammation characterized by a mixed IgE and non-IgEmediated reaction to food and/or environmental agents. This leads to esophageal dysfunction and remodeling accompanied by subepithelial fibrosis. EoE can be presented with several range of gastrointestinal symptoms, including regurgitation, vomiting, feeding difficulties or feeding refusal in infants and toddlers, as well as heartburn, dysphagia and food bolus impaction in older children and adults. The diagnostic suspicion is based on the presence of chronic symptoms of esophgeal dysfunction and esophageal eosinophilia characterised histologically by a significant eosinophilic infiltration of the oesophageal mucosa (>15 eosinophils per high powered field). In this review, we will provide an update on clinical presentation and diagnostic approach to EoE in children. We emphasized on the relevant aspects of the new clinical condition termed “PPI responsive esophageal eosinophilia”, as entities distinct from EoE and the role of PPI trial in the diagnostic workup, therefore we proposed a new diagnostic algorithm.

Objectives Despite the efforts to reduce the exposure to corrosive household products, caustic ingestion in children is currently a significant medical problem. The aims of the present study were to evaluate the clinical consequences of caustic ingestion and to identify prognostic factors that could concur in driving both diagnostic and therapeutic management. Methods All consecutive children referred for ingestion of a caustic substance from June 2017 to June 2018 were enrolled. Medical records, laboratory and endoscopic findings were reviewed and analyzed. Results We enrolled 44 children with caustic ingestion. Alkaline agents were ingested by 26 of 44 (59.1%) patients, whereas acid agents were ingested by 18 of 44 patients (40.9%). Alkaline rather than acid agents were associated with a worse endoscopic score (r: 0.45) and a higher probability of early esophageal stricture occurrence (r: 0.38). The specific risk of the presence of severe esophageal lesions rose progressively with increasing number of symptoms whereas no esophageal injury was found in asymptomatic patients. Conclusions Our data suggest that endoscopic evaluation is mandatory in symptomatic patients to direct therapeutic management, but it could be avoided in asymptomatic patients after accidental ingestion, particularly if the ingestion is only suspected and patients have no oropharyngeal burns.

As a contribution to the Teaching & Learning Symposium on Comparative Politics organized by APSA, this short article discusses the challenges in Introduction to Comparative Politics classes when co...

Economic recessions have often led to stronger citizen activism. This article assesses the relationship between the economy and protest in 2014, 6 years after the global financial crisis took place, a long-enough period for countries to have improved their economic situation and for people’s interpretations of the economy to be more optimistic. Does the economy still matter to explain protest if it is not as salient any longer? This research employs data for available European Union member states from the 2006, 2008, and 2014 European Social Survey to test the importance of national-level objective economic indicators as well as individual-level evaluations of financial well-being. Findings from the research suggest that objective economic predictors are more relevant to understand protest in 2014 than before the crisis. Economic resources remain more important for the prediction of protest than deprivation views, with the exception of unemployment. Even at times of partial economic recovery, the state of the economy helps explain increased levels of political protest across Europe well after 2008. The link between the economy and confrontational activism before and after the economic recession looks in the end very similar and a full economic recovery in the future can lead to even more protest activism in Europe.

The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanical properties of the specimens made of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy with EBM additive technology. Tensile tests on the component are carried out on “dog bone” specimens, of fixed dimensions, printed with orientations of 0°, 45°, and 90°. The results of the experimental campaign confirm the influence printing parameters of the technology on the mechanical performance of the components. Subsequently, the numerical-structural analysis carried out on the Octet-Truss elementary cell in Ti6Al4V titanium alloy shows that the mechanical behavior of the cell is influenced by the material growth orientation and confirmed that the orientation of 45° guarantees cells more resistant to loads of traction, while the orientations of 0° and 90° make up more deformable cells. The investigation of the mechanical properties of the components involved specimens with a solid material configuration and specimens is emptied by means of reticular structures. The results of the survey are compared with the same volume and with the same analysis. Direct observation of the stress–strain curves reveals a difference in the value of the elastic modulus, resulting in a linear section of the curve that is less steep in the case of the assembled component. The choice of the printing parameters is a crucial point in the construction process of the components made in Additive Manufacturing since, as confirmed by this study, the parameters of the technology influence the properties of the material and therefore of the printed component. Secondly, exploiting the potential of additive technologies in creating structures with complex geometry (such as lattice structures), offers the possibility, not only to reduce the weight of the components, but also to improve the final performance.

Objective To evaluate the prevalence of omental infarction (OI) in children with suspected appendicitis, the role of ultrasonography (US) in its diagnosis and management and the efficacy of conservative management. Methods Consecutive children with suspected acute appendicitis were prospectively enrolled. Ultrasonography was performed at baseline, during follow-up, before the discharge, and at 15-day intervals until US findings of OI disappeared. All children with a diagnosis of OI were treated conservatively. Results One hundred ninety-nine children (91 male; age range, 3-15 years) were evaluated. Eighty-four patients had acute appendicitis. Omental infarctions were found in 14 children (8 male; mean age, 9.8 ± 2.6 years), with an incidence of 7%. Ultrasonography depicted an echogenic mass consistent with OI in all children. Ultrasonography detected in 8 patients a normal-looking appendix, whereas in other 6 patients, it identified neither appendix nor indirect signs of acute appendicitis. A normal appendix has been detected by US during follow-up in 2 of these 6 patients. During follow-up, US finding of OI disappeared in all cases and no signs of acute appendicitis or other disease occurred. All 14 OIs were treated conservatively, with no reported complications. Conclusions Omental infarction is an underestimated cause of abdominal pain in children accounting for 7% of patients with suspected appendicitis. Ultrasonography is a useful method for the diagnoses and to guide clinical management of OI. Conservative therapy is a safe option for the management of OI.

PURPOSE: Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has been shown to have unique potential in low-income countries. Physicians and other healthcare providers can perform effective scans after a short period of training. This study aimed to evaluate indications and utility of ultrasonography as the main imaging service in a poor rural sub-Saharan region of Africa. Second, it evaluated the effect of a short training on POCUS for non-physician health providers and their agreement with a group of Italian physicians. METHODS: This study was undertaken in Lokomasama—a chiefdom of Sierra Leone—between January and February 2019. Based on clinical indications, ultrasound findings were evaluated with respect to the initial diagnostic hypothesis. Volunteer doctors conducted a theoretical–practical training of two community health officers (CHO) on chest and abdominal POCUS and E-FAST protocol. The evaluation of the achieved technical skills was obtained with a numeric score. Inter-observer agreement concerning ultrasound diagnosis based on clinical indications was assessed. RESULTS: A total of 196 consecutive patients underwent ultrasound examination. POCUS findings were in keeping with the clinical diagnosis in the 49.5%. POCUS changed the initial diagnosis in 17% of cases. After training, E-FAST and POCUS knowledge score was 90% and 83%, respectively. An excellent inter-observer agreement (0.88) was found between CHOs and physicians. CONCLUSION: POCUS represents a powerful diagnostic tool in a low-income country that may improve the patient management. Training of non-physician health providers is doable and may improve healthcare management in resource-limited settings.

Background Colorectal polyps are reported in 6,1% of paediatric colonoscopies and in 12% of those performed for lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Although colonoscopy is widely used in paediatric patients, it requires bowel preparation and general anaesthesia or deep sedation, and in rare cases, it can cause complications. Non-invasive screening techniques able to predict polyps in children with isolated and sporadic rectal bleeding may play a key role in the selection of patients needing colonoscopy. Methods We enrolled all children undergoing colonoscopy for isolated and sporadic rectal bleeding to determine the diagnostic accuracy of faecal calprotectin, ultrasonography (US) and digital rectal examination as diagnostic methods for screening colorectal polyps. Results A total of 26 of 59 enrolled patients (44.1%) had colonic polyps, one patient had multiple polyps, and 23% of children had polyps proximal to the splenic flexure. The diagnostic accuracy of faecal calprotectin for detecting colorectal polyps was 96.6%, with a sensitivity of 100%. False-positive faecal calprotectin was shown in 2 patients with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-related lesions. The diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound was 77.9%. Polyps not seen with ultrasound tended to be relatively smaller (1.5 vs 2.3, p = 0.001) and located in the rectum. The combined use of FC, US and digital rectal examination obtained a specificity and PPV of 100%. Conclusions FC combined with US and digital rectal examination is a good and promising non-invasive screening test for detecting colorectal polyps in children with isolated and sporadic rectal bleeding.

Political Participation in France and Germany Colchester, UK: ECPR Presses, 2012 is the first volume of its kind. Its editors, Oscar W. Gabriel, Silke I. Keil and Eric Kerrouche, have put together an original and unusual work that compares political behavior in the two neighboring countries in a direct manner. While considering multiple forms of political activism, from conventional events to unconventional acts, the authors of the various chapters highlight the many similarities and few differences that these two countries reveal in the way in which citizens act politically. In the end, the overall conclusions side with a stronger evidence of healthy political participation on the part of French and Germans alike, despite their respective countries’ different political systems, but with a peculiar preference for unconventional, violence-prone protest activities in France, contrary to the corresponding German support for law-abiding acts. The volume’s findings seem to replicate a historical stereotype of the two countries, according to previous groundwork in comparative political behavior studies.

In 2013 France and Germany will celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the Élysée Treaty, signed by the two countries to create a close collaboration in the interest of peace and prosperity. Over the course of five decades, different couples of French Presidents and German Chancellors have dealt with the Paris-Berlin relationship in slightly different ways, some with more success than others. Despite the many changes in the European context and to the balance in the alliance between France and Germany, the initial motivation and meaning of the treaty remains astonishingly valid today, especially in light of its positive contribution to European integration. Even with many possible factors weakening the two countries' core relations, the Franco-German duo retains its historically dominant influence in successful European governance, as the recent Merkozy situation showed.

The Élysée Treaty turned fifty on 22 January 2013—signed in 1963between France and Germany, under the watchful eyes of French PresidentCharles de Gaulle and West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.Although celebrated every decade, this particular anniversary comes at acrucial time in the countries’ bilateral relationship. After a few tumultuousyears of disagreement and distance between Paris and Berlin over seriouseconomic and foreign policy issues, German Chancellor Angela Merkeland French President François Hollande have seized the opportunity ofthe year-long anniversary calendar to work on political rapprochement, inthe spirit of one of the original purposes of the Treaty itself.

Infection is a severe potential complication of breast implant positioning in women with cancer. There still is some degree of uncertainty regarding optimal antibiotic prophylaxis regimens, infecting pathogens, and risk factors associated with infection during long-term followup of these patients.We performed a systematic clinical review to assess infecting microorganisms and risk factors among patients undergoing reconstructive procedures for breast cancer between January 2005 and February 2007. A randomly selected group of infection-free patients treated over the same time span was considered as a control.Among 240 women undergoing implant procedures performed and followed up as outpatients, 16 patients with prosthetic infections were observed (infection rate 6.7%). Infection was recorded within six months from surgery in 94% of the cases, with an overall mean time to infection of 95 days. The time interval between surgery and infection did not support a diagnosis of hospital-acquired infection in most cases. Gram-negative microorganisms were identified in seven cases. A higher proportion of patients with implant infection underwent radiotherapy or chemotherapy after surgery for advanced tumors compared with the control patients without infection.Extended post-operative surveillance is indicated, at least for the first six months after breast implant placement, particularly for women who need radiotherapy or chemotherapy after implant surgery. Gram-negative bacilli may be involved more often in late infections than otherwise expected. This finding may influence initial empiric antibiotic treatment.

Cancer patients with complicated infections following abdominal surgery represent one of the worst clinical scenarios that is useful for testing the efficacy of empirical antimicrobial therapy. No study so far has evaluated the performance of tigecycline (TIG) when administered as empirical first-line treatment in a homogeneous population of surgical cancer patients with a febrile episode. An observational review of the data records of 24 sequential patients receiving TIG for a febrile episode following a major abdominal procedure in a single cancer institute was performed. Large bowel surgery represented 68% of all procedures, followed by gastric surgery (16%) and urinary-gynaecologic-biliary surgery (16%). Complications following surgery were observed in 68% of febrile episodes, with peritonitis and sepsis accounting for 59% and 24% of complications, respectively. Eight patients needed repeat surgery for source control. The mean duration of TIG treatment was 8 days. Causative pathogens were detected in 16 episodes (64%), and a total of 44 microorganisms were recovered (29% Escherichia coli, 9% Enterococcus faecalis and 9% coagulase-negative staphylococci). TIG was effective in 12 episodes (48%). The success rate was 67% when infectious episodes sustained by intrinsically resistant bacteria and fungi were excluded. Treatment failure was associated with the presence of complications and with microbiologically documented infection. TIG may be useful as a first-line treatment option in cancer patients requiring antibiotic treatment following surgery when complications are not present or suspected on clinical grounds and when local microbial epidemiology shows a low incidence of primary resistant bacteria.

In 1993 the European Union's Heads of State and Government gathered in Copenhagen for the European Council and agreed upon a set of criteria for countries wishing to join the European Union (EU). T...

The European Union (EU) has repeatedly tried to answer complaints about a possible democratic deficit. With the empowerment of the European Parliament scholars have assumed that European citizens were participating more in political matters. This research focuses on the levels and styles of political participation in general in the EU, testing whether EU member states have reached similar levels of political participation, conventional and non-conventional, and whether there might be a possible base for a political gender gap assessment. Datasets from the World Values Surveys for European countries in 1990 are used to compare three dimensions of political involvement: conventional, protest-oriented and the intensity of political integration. The results highlight the presence not only of a group of countries whose citizens are strong political participants across the participation dimensions used, but also of a serious, constant presence of gender differences in the levels of political participation declared.

Background The effectiveness of medical therapy in paediatric acute severe colitis is scarcely described. We aimed to assess the efficacy of infliximab in children prospectively enrolled at Sapienza University of Rome between May 2010 and 2012. Methods Clinical assessment and laboratory data were recorded at admission and at day 3 and 5. All patients received corticosteroids; infliximab was administered in refractory patients. Colectomy rate was assessed at 2-year follow-up. Results Thirty-one patients (mean age 10.6 ± 4.9 years, 52% females) were included: 21 responded to corticosteroids (68%), 10 were refractory and received infliximab (32%). Among the latter, 2 required urgent colectomy (20%); 80% responded, however 50% of these required elective colectomy during follow-up. Patients refractory to corticosteroids showed a significantly shorter interval from ulcerative colitis diagnosis to acute severe colitis compared to responders (7.4 ± 9.6 vs. 23.1 ± 21.6 months, respectively; p = 0.01), and a higher rate of colectomy at follow-up (50% vs. 14%, respectively; p = 0.007). More than 2 courses of corticosteroids before acute severe colitis were predictive of surgical need (OR 4.4). Conclusion Despite its short-term efficacy, infliximab did not modify the long-term surgical rate of paediatric acute severe colitis in our cohort. Children with an early severe colitis commonly need a second-line therapy, whilst frequent courses of corticosteroids are predictive of a poor outcome.

The ‘Participatory Revolution’ of the past decades has caused not only a surge in political activism, but more importantly a reconsideration of the relevance of the level of political engagement: individual and collective levels of activism have started competing for political participants. In this context, a close analysis of the French case might reveal whether it is political involvement at the individual level, more than at the collective one, that drives the country's strong political activism. The testing of this political behavior paradigm will provide important conclusions on the validity of the literature on social capital, questioning the positive correlation between high levels of conventional or unconventional political activism and high levels of associationism and collective activity in social and political organizations.

Clinical variables and disease course of pediatric ulcerative colitis (UC) have been poorly reported. The aim of this study was to retrospectively describe the phenotype and disease course of pediatric onset UC diagnosed at a tertiary referral Center for Pediatric Gastroenterology. Patients and methods: 110 patients with a diagnosis of UC were identified at our Department database. Records were reviewed for disease location and behavior at the diagnosis, family history for inflammatory bowel disease, pattern changes at the follow-up, need of surgery and cumulative risk for colectomy. Results: Thirty-five % of patients had an early-onset disease (0–7 years). At the diagnosis, 29% had proctitis, 22% left-sided colitis, 15% extensive colitis and 34% pancolitis. Fifteen % presented with a rectal sparing, while a patchy colonic inflammation was reported in 18%. Rectal sparing was significantly related to the younger age (p: b0.05). Disease extension at the follow up was reported in 29% of pts. No clinical variables at the diagnosis were related to the subsequent extension of the disease. The cumulative rates of colectomy were 9% at 2 year and 14% at 5 years. An extensive disease as well as acute severe colitis and corticosteroid therapy at the diagnosis were significantly associated with an increased risk of colectomy. Conclusions: Pediatric UC is extensive and severe at the diagnosis, with an overall high rate of disease extension at the follow-up. Endoscopic atypical features are common in young children. The colectomy rate is related to the location and severity of the disease at the diagnosis.

Background Heparin solution is routinely used to maintain the patency of infusion devices. Literature supports the alternative use of normal saline solution for flushing and locking intravenous infusion devices especially for pediatric patients. There is uncertainty regarding safety and efficacy of this policy for intermittent locking of implanted ports. Objective This study evaluates efficacy and safety of normal saline solution for intermittent locking procedures of implanted ports. Methods This is a retrospective observational cohort study of 610 implanted ports receiving 2 different locking solutions conducted at the National Institute for Cancer Research, IST Genova, Italy, from January 2007 to August 2009. Group A (n = 297) received heparinized solution (10 mL/500 U heparin), whereas group B (n = 313), 10 mL normal saline. Primary endpoint was irreversible port occlusion. Minimum follow-up was 12 months. The role of age, type of tumor, disease stage, access site, access body side, catheter tip position, and concomitant use of parenteral nutrition and chemotherapy was evaluated in secondary aim. Results : Results fail to show statistically significant differences in implanted ports survival free from failure for occlusive events between the use of heparinized solution and that of normal saline for the maintenance of port patency, both in univariate (P = .9) and in multivariate analyses (P = .7). Conclusion Normal saline solution seems to be as effective as heparinized solution for keeping patent implanted ports in adult cancer patients. Implications for practice Switching from heparinized solution to normal saline for catheter intermittent lock of ports seems a safe procedure.

This chapter presents an analysis of multiple factors that have intervened in the ratification process of the last two European referendums in France, and discusses the possibility that what at first seems to be the end product of different variables, could instead be the result of many similarities and only a few decisive differences. Three specific areas of relations affect French votes in national referendums. The domestic relationship to the national government is the usually the first place to look when examining the results of a referendum in France. The citizens' long-term attitude towards European integration is usually expected to be the second most relevant variable. The third framework of interpretation of French referendums on European treaties deals with the way individuals perceive others, as the referendum forces voters to decide how to change and/or create a new type of relationship with a new country, people and culture. Keywords: domestic relationship; EU Constitution Referendums; European integration; European treaties; French referendums; French votes; ratification process

The creation of the political participation indexes introduced in the previous chapter allows the research project to answer the three questions presented by the French participation paradigm in this book. Using the conventional activity index, the protest measure and the individual’s participation in politically-based associations, in conjunction with frequencies, cross-tabulations, correlations and regression models, the reader will be able to discover, one step at a time, the relevant meaning of a political participation case in which the individual’s political integration network is very limited. In this sense, this chapter specifically connects France to other cases of advanced democracies, putting forward a direct comparison on the bases of political participation figures.

As the culmination of the long development of the French political action paradigm, this chapter starts with a direct discussion based upon the three specific research questions in this volume. 1) Is France strongly politically active? How? 2) Does France consequently have a high level of social capital as well? How is it measured? 3) Where does France stand in comparison to other countries in regard to the link between political activism and social integration?

The discussion on forms and intensities of political action in France in the previous chapter has confirmed the long-term strong activism that the country has been known for. When dealing with conventional political participation, or even more particularly in cases of protest activity, the French numbers from different databases have all provided a unanimous verdict. French activism in politics is alive and strong; citizens are interested in their role in democracy and make sure they are heard, regardless of the situation.

Elections, political campaigns, street protests and debates: the French political landscape always provides an intriguing opportunity for citizens to be active. Even French institutions are keen to make sure individuals take advantage of their right to political expression. For instance, the French government1 informs citizens on how to get involved in associations, from general rules to specific legal details. With the same commitment, the city of Paris hosts an annual forum of associations2 to support and advise a potential average of 55,000 organizations formed in the capital alone. Indirectly, French authorities are encouraging citizens to be responsible participants in the democratic system they are part of, to the point of generating on a regular basis quite a few large gatherings, with the ritual street march, to illustrate specific demands in regard to a new law or government policy. In the fall of 2008 for instance, high school students, parents and teachers joined forces on a Saturday afternoon in a street protest leaving Place d’Italie in Paris to complain about the high school education curriculum reform the government had implemented. In a parallel case a few weeks later, media journalists and technicians from public radio and TV stations assembled at the Tour Eiffel to manifest their disappointment and opposition to a government project changing policies regarding on-the-air commercial promotions and election rules to the national audiovisual council.

The study of political participation across areas and periods has yet to be completed. Overall, researchers have been able to achieve important conclusions on the main factors leading to citizens’ political activism. Whether the research prefers to focus on a specific context or on the motives behind political commitment, it remains clear that individuals are brought into the political arena with a pre-determined disposition to be active. The on-going interaction of socio-demographic factors with levels and styles of political action has shown that a parsimonious political action equation cannot fully account for the possibility of political involvement. More precisely, the context of political action may not be the most important element in assessing whether a person will be a strong participant. To predict citizen activism, the French situation suggests that an individual’s socio-demographic characteristics can be as relevant as a person’s social and political integration. Whereas Tocqueville emphasized the social integration element over the individual’s features, this study has balanced the relevance of both aspects fostering political involvement.

To start on a journey to study the relevance of political activism in France, the reader will need to review a large legacy of knowledge and research on this very topic. Fortunately, Chapter 2 is a bridge between the general research paradigm in this book and the vast amount of information available already. As an essential step to understanding and following the development of the hypotheses in later chapters, the sections that follow will briefly highlight the literature’s position on France’s historical activism and the problems of terminology when someone refers to political participation and its presumed meanings. Once the different terms used to address the study of political action are clear, the last section in the chapter will introduce the first data on political participation in France. As a conclusion this chapter underlines the most important elements that have been accounted for as responsible for political action. The variables presented are a further link between the general findings of political participation research and the more specific French works on the same subject. The gradual shift from the general literature to the more specific variables of analysis allows an easier transition to the technicalities of the index construction section in Chapter 5. The essence of political activism among the French will appear very clearly.

The study of political activism, in France in particular, has benefited over the years from multiple, competing angles of analysis. Researchers have observed and recorded cases of political participation focusing on different actors and preferences of involvement. Whereas all the findings delivered have been very compelling, the lenses of analysis employed have indirectly affected a possible reconciliation among the different conclusions. The first section in this chapter tries to provide a coherent organization of the research approaches used and of their overall findings in the study of political activism and group participation in France. The second part of the chapter provides instead a discussion on the operationalization of the most important variables in the study of political action, leading to the operationalization choices in this book.