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L’Ordre des Dominicains, organisation religieuse vieille de plusieurs centenaires, est centre autour d’une pratique, la predication. Caracterisee par des symboles qui lui sont specifiques, elle s’est adaptee au cours du temps aux differentes evolutions technologiques. Nous allons dans le cadre d’une etude de cas etudier comment l’une d’elles, Internet, est venue tester le fonctionnement de cette organisation. Nous mettrons en evidence le fait que cette technologie se soit integree a la fois dans la pratique propre aux Dominicains et dans un processus organisationnel. Elle a par ailleurs mene l’Ordre a tester certaines de ses limites.

L’intrapreneuriat a t-il un sens dans une organisation communautaire ? L’expérience « Retraite dans la Ville » a permis aux auteurs1 de tester le modèle d’Ireland et al. (2006) dans un environnement de contraste et de mettre en évidence un cinquième levier que nous avons appelé « la présence ». Dans une organisation caractérisée par des comportements largement intériorisés, le rapport à l’autre tendrait à fonder un modèle d’intrapreneuriat fondamentalement différent.

The world of work is changing. A century after moving from an agriculture-centered world to an Industrial one, from self-employed workers to salaried employees, our modern economies are slowly transitioning towards a new model: based on simultaneous collaboration and competition, the boundaries of contemporary organizations are blurring; information technologies are allowing individuals and companies to set base away from cities; shared working spaces are triggering new forms of collaborations between individuals and corporations.This White Paper aims at diagnosing key institutional tensions related to new work practices in the city, and putting forward questions and general propositions likely to overcome these tensions. The idea is to analyze how new collaborative communities and collaborative logics (of coworkers, hackers, makers, fabbers, and teleworkers) and more traditional collective activity and modes of decision making (of the city and corporations in the city) can jointly contribute to the co-production of harmonious new ways of life and new ways of working. Reinventing joint public policies, corporate strategies and citizenship appear here as a key stake where usual dichotomies between private-public, collaborative-non-collaborative economy, traditional citizens and hacktivists need to be overcome.We thus identify in this document a set of controversies around four strong political issues both for the city and the field of management, linked to the emergence of collaborative spaces:o Topic 1. Space, territories, and public policy on collaborative communities in the city;o Topic 2. Collaborative communities and their roles in education in the city;o Topic 3. Business models and their communication in the context of collaborative spaces and collaborative communities;o Topic 4. Collaborative spaces and their roles in innovation and entrepreneurial dynamics at the level of the cityBeyond our controversies, we underline three paradoxes which should be at the heart of new questions for policy-makers, hacktivists, actors of collaborative movements, and citizens (distinctions which may become less and less relevant in the years to come):o Social versus economic orientations of both the city and the collaborative communities it can host;o Critical/revolutionary versus more incremental relationships between cities, organizations, societies, collaborative communities, and new work practices;o Local territory (district/proximate area) grounded versus broader city-oriented or connectivity related issues about collaborative movement and new work practices.To balance these tensions, we elaborate seven general areas of questions and propositions for all stakeholders:o The generalization of infra-organization (physical collaborative platforms);o The emergence of “ ‘inclusive lab’ labels” (elaborated and managed by collaborative communities themselves);o A renewed academic presence in the city and in the country-side (with more virtual, distributed and ‘experiential’ logics);o Ephemeral and mobile labs managed jointly by public, collaborative and private stakeholders;o “Open open” innovation in public and semi-public spaces of the city;o Rise of mega-spaces for creativity in the city;o Development of a global infrastructure for coworkers, mobile workers and teleworkers.These are directions we see as particularly promising to manage the tensions, paradoxes and stakes explicated by our controversies.We hope that these questions and propositions will inspire both academics, politicians, hacktivists and entrepreneurs for future collaborations on the study and joint transformation of public policies, corporate strategies, and citizenship.

Le présent article s'inscrit dans la suite logique d'un texte précédemment publié. Les auteurs y dépouillent une variété de définitions opérationnelles de la satisfaction au travail à partir desquelles ils opèrent un choix en accord avec leur position théorique. Ils procèdent ensuite à une revue sommaire des instruments de mesure disponibles et des considérations méthodologiques pertinentes afin de suggérer un devis propre à faciliter l'élaboration d'un instrument de mesure adéquat., The present study was undertaken in order to point out some important guide-lines to follow when measuring job satisfaction. To do so, the authors go through the following steps.First, a critical analysis is carried out in order to determine the extent to which the five operational measures of job satisfaction, that have been reviewed, are, in fact, matching the authors' conceptual option of job satisfaction. The job satisfaction definition developed by the team of the Work Adjustment Project at the University of Minnesota is retained. Satisfaction then, is defined in need fulfillment terms as a « ... correspondent between the reinforcer system of the work environment and the individual's needs ». The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, based on this definition, requires the subject to respond in terms of the difference between what he would like to receive and what he does receive.Second, a descriptive review of some of the job satisfaction questionnaires, currently used, is presented in order to know for what purpose these job satisfaction instrument measures were used and to disclose the most important job facets related to satisfaction such questionnaires should include. Nine factors of job satisfaction are retained: 1) general factor; 2) intrinsic factor; 3) extrinsic factor; 4) working conditions ; 5) recognition ; 6) coworkers ; 7) supervision ; 8) autonomy and 9) self-actualization.Third, some of the most important psychometric considerations searchers should take into account, in building that sort of questionnaire, are discussed. The most appropriate type of questions seem to be the Likert one. Reliability should be tested through homogeneity of the items, internal consistency of the items (split-halves or odd-even) and stability of the instrument. Validity, on the other hand, should be tested by more than one means, such as content validity, concurrent validity, and construct validity.

Le Systeme d’Information est un aspect essentiel des organisations. Sa composition a varie au fil du temps, refletant ainsi les formes organisationnelles successives. Dans sa forme actuelle, la technologie tient une part importante, dont nous allons determiner l’apport en terme regulationniste, notamment dans le domaine financier. L’enjeu sera de rendre concret et perceptible cette notion de SI et les consequences regulatrices (ou potentiellement regulatrices) de la technologie. Ceci permettra aux acteurs (en particulier les praticiens) d’avoir une vision critique de leur SI.

Fluorescent signals from mouse-tissue-like phantoms are computed using both Monte Carlo simulation and diffusion approximation. The relative difference is less than 30% for a fluorophore placed in the middle of a 3mm separated source-detector pair.

Kennedy, Robbins and Delorme examine the importance of fiscal rules in determining budgetary outcomes. After briefly reviewing the rationale for rules, the paper compares the rules introduced in several countries at the national and subnational levels. It notes that while several countries have introduced restrictions on deficit, debt, tax and expenditure levels, some countries have focused their efforts on increasing transparency and accountability in the conduct of fiscal policy. Kennedy, Robbins and Delorme also evaluate the evidence about the impact of rules in terms of budgetary consolidation in the 1990s. The evidence indicates that both countries with rules and countries without rules implemented successful fiscal adjustments. From this, the authors conclude that rules may be helpful in achieving fiscal consolidation and may even be necessary in certain countries, but they are clearly not necessary in all countries. They also find that empirical studies of fiscal rules generally support this conclusion. However, determining the conditions under which fiscal rules are indeed necessary to ensure fiscal discipline remains an area for further research.

This paper sheds light on the complex macroeconomic effects initiated by capital income taxation using a dynamic applied general equilibrium model of the U.S. economy. The model considers impacts of policy changes on the allocation of resources across both industries and countries, and over time. Within the model, a given change in capital income taxation abroad affects the domestic economy through capital flows, commodity flows and tax revenue effects. Thus, the model considers the spillovers associated with changes in commodity flows in addition to the usual spillovers generated by capital movements. The simulation results illustrate rather well that personal and corporate income taxation yield very different conclusions in terms of macroeconomic consequences and that it is important to distinguish between short- and long-run policy implications of the two types of capital income tax policies ...

This paper presents a technical description of the OECD's multi-sector, multi-country applied general equilibrium model -- the WALRAS model. This model has been developed with the explicit objective of quantifying the economy-wide effects of agricultural policies in OECD countries. The common specification of the model for the major OECD agricultural trading countries/regions (Australia, Canada, EEC, Japan, New Zealand and the United States) is presented in detail. The construction of the benchmark data sets and the calibration of the model are also fully described ...

A simplified approach is proposed to simulate the fluorescence signal from a fluorophore submerged inside a turbid medium using the Monte Carlo method. Based on the reversibility of photon propagation, the fluorescence signal can be obtained from a single Monte Carlo simulation of the excitation light. This is computationally less expensive and also allows for the direct use of well-validated nonfluorescence photon migration Monte Carlo codes. Fluorescence signals from a mouse tissuelike phantom were computed using both the simplified Monte Carlo simulation and the diffusion approximation. The relative difference of signal intensity was found to be at most 30% for a fluorophore placed in the medium at various depths and horizontally midway between a source-detector pair separated by 3 mm. The difference in time characteristics of the signal is also examined.

This paper presents a progress report on the Economics and Statistics Department's applied general equilibrium model -- the WALRAS model. This model has been developed with the explicit objective of quantifying the economy-wide effects of agricultural policies in OECD countries. The common specification of the model for the major OECD agricultural trading countries/regions (Australia, Canada, EEC, Japan, New Zealand and the United States) is described in detail. Results are presented for some preliminary simulations of the effects of removing the 1979-81 levels of agricultural assistance in these countries/regions. The initial results relate only to unilateral liberalisation experiments with the unlinked country/region models, with no account being taken of feedback effects through changes in world agricultural prices and trade volumes ...

Les auteurs tentent de décrire au mieux, au cours de la période comprise entre le 15 juin 1978 et le 16 juillet 1979, l'activité sur le plan de la concurrence entre les diverses organisations syndicales oeuvrant au Québec. Après avoir brièvement décrit certaines coordonnées juridiques relatives à ce phénomène, les auteurs précisent les sources de données auxquelles ils ont puisé leurs renseignements et ils se livrent à une analyse des résultats obtenus, This paper tries to measure, during a period of reference, the extent of union rivalry in Québec which particularizes it from other Canadian juridictions on the ground of plural unionism. As a matter of fact, many central labor bodies dispute the workers' allegiance in many sectors of activity and thus, are placed in a competitive environment. This factual situation can be prejudicial to the unity of the Québec labor movement and leads in some circumstances to strategic alliances, and in few occasions, to the elaboration of no-raiding pacts. But these sporadic attempts designed in order to eliminate inter-unions competition, are not easy to apply and they reveal an important paradox: the major portion of salaried workers is not yet unionized. It is therefore questionable to consider the usefulness of activity devoted to poaching inside the labor movement.In the theoretical context, some distinctions are made between cases relating to competition. Basically, attempts to organize simultaneously unorganized workers are contrasted with those concerned with raiding itself. In turn, one might conceive the raiding activity according to the expected result: 1) total change of allegiance; 2) splitting up the actual certification unit; 3) merger of many certification units. The main legal guidelines relating to these activities are also presented, particularly the sections devoted to the certification (section 22), to the revocation (section 41) and to the changes of affiliation when a collective agreement is in force (section 73). A summary of the legal implications of these three activities is presented in a synoptic format and a short discussion of related delays is also exposed. Finally, the theoretical frame-work is completed by a discussion of possible motives explaining these allegiance moves: one should take care in considering only one factor as determinant. The variety or real situations behind the information that has been collected necessitates elementary caution in the interpretation of the phenomenon.As far as methodology is concerned, all decisions delivered in relation to petition for certification were examined on a 13 month basis, namely from June 15th1978 to July 16th1979, and they have been manually coded according to many variables like the size of the unit, the precise sector of economic activity, and the affiliations of units involved. These sources of reference present only a partial view of the phenomenon because the construction industry, submitted to a special labour law as well as activities pertaining toCanada Labour Code, were not taken into ac-count. In matter of distinctive affiliations, the following categories were retained: a) QFL (international unions); b) QFL (national unions); c) CNTU; d) Confederation of Democratic Unions (CSD); e) Centrale de l'Enseignement du Québec (CEQ); 0 Teamster; g) Independent unions, save the Teamsters.The results show that the competition between labor organizations affects only a small part of the whole unionized labour force (2,14%), but this proportion expands to more than 40% when one considers during the same period of reference, the total number of workers concerned by petitions for certification that were filed during that period.Two questions come to mind, what is the relative effectiveness of the activities conducted on this ground? And indirectly, how can we appreciate the usefulness of the resources invested by the competitive organizations? The data reveal that, in a proportion of 75%, the winnings outnumbered the failures, on the basis of the reported attempts. Most of this reality can be attributed to the quasi-public sectors (e.g.: hospital and welfare institutions in addition to the educational sector), but the incidence in terms of workers affected by the phenomenon is much more important in the private sector.Who are the winning organizations and the targets that are more often selected in order to raid? When considering the balance between the gains and the losses, theCNTU comes first with a net number of 2,237 workers on a total number of 9,569, while the independent unions present a negative balance with a loss of 2,403. In linking the number of success to the total number of attempts, one can also discover that the rate of success exceeds 70% in all cases, leading to the conclusion that the involved organizations make realistic appraisals in their attempts. As for the targets which were more often selected, it appeared that the QFL (international unions), the CNTU and the independent unions take the first places, mainly regarding the activity of splitting up the certification units in the quasi-public sector.In conclusion, the idea of a recent noraiding pact between the CNTU and the CEQ is briefly discussed.

En 2016, l’Assemblée nationale du Québec adoptait un nouveau régime de négociation collective et de règlement des différends pour le secteur municipal. La Loi concernant le régime de négociation des conventions collectives et de règlement des différends dans le secteur municipal peut être qualifiée d’exceptionnelle dans la mesure où elle rompt avec les règles régissant les rapports collectifs du travail dans ce secteur qui, depuis 1964, étaient partie intégrante du Code du travail. Le nouveau régime modifie de manière significative le mode de nomination des arbitres appelés à trancher les différends entre les employeurs municipaux et les syndicats de salariés, particulièrement ceux qui représentent des policiers et des pompiers, ainsi que les principes directeurs qui guident la détermination des conditions de travail pour toutes les catégories de salariés. De plus, ce régime introduit plusieurs critères décisionnels qui limitent la marge discrétionnaire des tiers décideurs. Les auteurs analysent les conséquences de ces particularités par rapport au cadre général établi par le Code, ce qui donne lieu à un regard critique sur les outils de médiation et d’arbitrage mis à la disposition des parties pour les aider à régler leurs litiges de même qu’à une réflexion sur la politique législative du travail., In 2016, the National Assembly adopted a new collective bargaining and dispute settlement regime for the municipal sector. Bill 110 can be described as exceptional in that it breaks with the rules governing collective labour relations in this sector which, since 1964, had been an integral part of the Labour Code. The new regime significantly modifies the method of appointing arbitrators called upon to settle disputes between municipal employers and trade unions, particularly those representing police officers and firefighters, and the guiding principles for determining working conditions for all categories of employees. In addition, it introduces several decision-making criteria that limit the discretionary margin of third-party decision-makers. The consequences of these particularities are analyzed in relation to the general framework established by the Code and give rise to a critical look at the mediation and arbitration tools available to the parties to help them settle their disputes, as well as a consideration on the legislative policy concerning labour issues., En el año 2016 la Asamblea Nacional adoptó un nuevo régimen de negociación colectiva y de resolución de controversias para el sector municipal. La ley 110 podría ser calificada como excepcional pues va en contra de la normativa que rige las relaciones laborales en materia de contrato colectivo en este sector, ya que desde 1964 formaba parte del Código del Trabajo. El nuevo régimen ha modificado considerablemente la manera para designar los árbitros encargados de dirimir las controversias entre los empleadores municipales y los sindicatos, particularmente de aquellos que representan al cuerpo de policía y al cuerpo de bomberos, al igual que los principios rectores que determinan las condiciones de trabajo para todas las categorías de asalariados. Además, ha planteado diversos criterios de decisión que limitan el margen discrecional de terceros que intervienen en el proceso. Se han analizado las consecuencias de estas particularidades con respecto al marco general establecido por el Código, que suscitan una reflexión crítica de los instrumentos de mediación y de arbitraje a la disposición de las partes, con el fin de dirimir sus controversias y proponer una reflexión sobre la política legislativa laboral.

À partir d’une liste exhaustive des lois spéciales de retour au travail adoptées au Québec entre 1964 et 2001 inclusivement, les auteurs en présentent, sous la forme d’un tableau détaillé, certaines caractéristiques : un sommaire de leur contenu, la durée approximative du conflit auquel chacune des lois entendait mettre fin, le caractère légal ou illégal de l’arrêt de travail, sa durée ainsi que des commentaires de nature factuelle. Cet exercice permet de dégager quelques observations sur la fréquence d’utilisation de ce moyen exceptionnel et il conduit à identifier les domaines d’activité les plus souvent touchés par de telles interventions. Il montre aussi que le législateur prend souvent en compte, pour justifier l’usage de cet outil extraordinaire de règlement d’un différend, non seulement les critères relatifs au maintien de la santé et de la sécurité publiques, mais parfois aussi les inconvénients majeurs pouvant résulter du conflit. C’est qu’en pareille matière, l’adoption d’une loi se situe toujours aux frontières du droit et de la politique., The authors present a detailed account of each of the special acts that ordered people back to work, most of the time, employees according to the definition of the Labour Code (R.S.Q., c. C-27), or that ordered such employees to perform their usual tasks. Between 1964 and 2001, 34 such exceptional acts were adopted. The paper does not take into consideration legislative amendments enacted over the years to modify in a general manner the rules governing collective bargaining relations in the public and para-public sectors as well as within public services.In spite of the quite significant differences between the collective bargaining systems in place in Canada, especially as concerns the right to strike and the concept of essential services, such statistical data is evidence of a tendency to intervene more in the area of industrial relations in comparison with what occurs in other Canadian jurisdictions. A more detailed analysis of the rules in force elsewhere, especially in Ontario (24 special acts) and at the federal level (27 special acts) would explain these differences.As far as the areas affected by this type of legislative intervention are concerned, the data collected indicate that such areas of activity are especially those in which the State is often involved either as an employer or as a financial backer, even though other reasons for this exceptional type of intervention must not be neglected: the necessity of ending violence and the obvious intolerance of citizens deprived of a service that is not deemed essential according to the other legal criteria, are examples of this.From another perspective, the duration of the conflict is far from being in itself a decisive basis for intervention. From this point of view, we were able to establish that for public transit within the Montreal Urban Community, conflicts varying in duration between 2 and 22 days preceded the government’s decision to enact such special legislation. It was also possible to note such a time variation in the area of electrical services supply with strikes lasting from 10 to 22 days.It’s also useful to mention that if the use of such exceptional acts has diminished since the creation of the Conseil des services essentiels in 1982 (20 such acts were adopted between 1964 and 1982 as compared to 14 since 1983), we would be wrong to attribute the reduction in such periodic interventions to the sole existence of the Conseil. Other factors, such as the reduction of the number of work stoppages since 1983 in the public sector as well as the permanent measures provided for by the Act to ensure that essential services are maintained in the health and social services sector (R.S.Q., c. M-1.1) may also account for this phenomenon.Without giving any consideration to the social legitimacy of legislative intervention to terminate a labour conflict—real or apprehended—it must be admitted that the use of a special act in such situations is a sign of the failure of the free collective bargaining process, and that its repeated use runs the risk of undermining the authority of such laws. This instrument of social control involves a problem of public policy in the field of labour relations : how to conciliate certain international commitments, for example, ones made within the framework of the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work adopted in 1998, with the use of this unusual manner of conflict settlement, even when essential services are provided to the population?, A partir de una lista exhaustiva de las leyes especiales de retorno al trabajo adoptas en Quebec entre 1964 y 2001, los autores presentan, en forma de un cuadro detallado, un sumario de su contenido, la duración aproximada del conflicto que dió lugar a la ley, el carácter legal o ilegal de la paralización de trabajo, su duración e, igualmente, otros comentarios de tipo factual. Este ejercicio permite despejar algunas observaciones sobre la frecuencia de utilización de este medio excepcional y conduce a identificar los campos de actividad mas frecuentemente afectados por tales intervenciones. Se muestra también que para justificar el uso de este instrumento extraordinario de solución de un diferendo, el legislador toma en cuenta frecuentemente los criterios relativos a la protección de la salud y de la seguridad pública y a veces también los inconvenientes mayores que pueden resultar del conflicto. Es decir que en este tipo de materia, la adopción de una ley se sitúa siempre en la frontera entre el derecho y la política.

Dans cet article, les auteurs attribuent principalement la confusion qui gravite autour du thème de la satisfaction au travail à une carence manifeste au niveau du cadre conceptuel d'analyse. Ils proposent donc d'aborder la notion de satisfaction au travail par le biais d'une discussion approfondie de ses pôles principaux, c'est-à-dire les besoins humains et les incitations de l'emploi., INTRODUCTIONThis article submits a conceptual framework for the analysis of job satisfaction. It seems clear, from an extensive review of literature (see Dunnette and Kirchner, Evans, Hinrichs, Larouche, Locke, Schwab and Cummings, Wanous and Lawler III1), that there is a serious gap at this theoretical level. In order to fill in thisdeficiency, the authors adopt the organismic model of analysis. Some of the pioneers of this school of thought (see Goldstein, Maslow and Rogers), view man as an entity interacting with many environments, the work situation being an important one. Based on this assumption, the present analysis will proceed through four major steps before formulating a conceptual definition of job satisfaction.ORIGINAL MODELAfter reviewing some of the job satisfaction definitions available (Beer, Ivancevich and Donnelly, Lofquist and Dawis, Smith, Kendall and Hulin, Vroom), it appears difficult to find a common denominator. To cope with this problem, the authors propose a first model of analysis which permits to clarify some of the terms currently used, such as motivation, stimulus, and other variables related with the concept ob job satisfaction.The main interaction of the first model (see Figure 1) describes the relation-ship between the individual and his job. Taking into account the theory of Work Adjustment (see Lofquist and Dawis), one can characterize the individual by two main sets, his needs and skills. The human needs provide the energy available for action while the skills refer to the tools used by the individual in order to fulfil his needs. The concept of skills takes form through intelligence, memory and perceptual system. On the other hand, the concept of human needs includes what has been called the primary and the secondary needs, i.e. the physiological and the psychological needs. In the same trend, the other term of this basic relationship, the job, is also viewed as a two-dimensional construct, i.e. the requirements and the incentives. The job requirements represent all the comportmental requests that are considered relevant by the employer to fulfil the job adequately. The incentives are the material and psychological objects that are sent back to the employee through his job. For example, wages, working conditions, social status, autonomy, self-esteem and interpersonal relationships can be viewed as some of the major dimensions of this concept.In this connection, the concept of job satisfaction raises up from a worker's subjective evaluation toward the adequacy of his job incentives in order to fulfil the needs he experiences. The use of the term job satisfaction implies an end of action, a result of the interaction human needs — job incentives. The use of the term motivation rather implies a beginning of action, a state of activation of the organism to find out an appropriate mean in order to eliminate the experience need.THEORY OF HUMAN NEEDS : RÉTROSPECTIVE AND PERSPECTIVETwo main series of coordinates (human needs and job incentives) emerge from the initial model of job satisfaction. This second part begins with a summary of the so popular initial theory of Maslow (1954) on human needs (Hogue, Huneryager and Heckman, Leavitt and Pondy, Muller and Silberer, Van Hoorick, Vroom and Deci). As it is known, this theory postulates the existence of five levels of human needs structured in a hierarchical order (see Figure 3). Maslow states two basic principles concerning the human motivation. First, he asserts that all needs are virtually present in the human being. Secondly, needs of a superior levelwill become active and « motivators » to the extent that the adjoining lower level needs are gratified. This sequential pattern is currently referred to as the prepotency process.In spite of its wide acceptance and utilization, this theory is not supported by the few empirical tests we may refer to (Alderfer, Goodman, Hall and Nougaim, Lawler III and Suttle, Payne). According to these results, one should rather turn to Maslow's (1968, 1970) revised theory. In this new version, Maslow advances a new typology of human needs : those linked to deficiencies of the organism and those associated with the growth of the organism. The prepotency process still operates in this new classification but we cannot predict which superior needs will become salient once the deficiency needs stop acting as motivators or once they are sufficiently gratified. By way of consequences, this model allows to take into account individual differences when measuring the relative importance of human needs in empirical studies of job satisfaction.THE INCENTIVES ASPECTDiscussing the role of the incentives in a work situation requires a resort to a human behaviour framework which allows a comprehensive explanation of the human dynamic. The authors of this paper have selected an expectancy model (see Figure 4) congruent with the major theoretical foundations already used. The framework begins with the perception of an organic need through some internal stimuli. These signals set in motion a state of activation (motivation) ; the individual then seeks actively for an appropriate mean (behaviour) to gratify his need which, when gratified, allows him to « feel good » (expected outcome). In short, the chosen model relies on the organismic approach. This construct displays a variety of behaviours which can be equated to different forms of responses. Thus, the authors do not support the mecanicist explanation of the S >R behavioural scheme because the individual is able to use his differential skills to attain the expected result. Finally, the expectancy model integrates two operational notions previously described by Vroom. These notions, valence and expectancy, prove to be very useful in a framework of dynamic behaviour, because they offer a mode of understanding one's personal way of reaching the expected outcome. When applied to the work situation, the job held becomes a primary mean of need fulfilment on account of its social value. As far as the concept of incentives is concerned, it is identified with all the possible outcomes linked to the occupationnal behaviour.The next step consists in categorizing the work incentives in accordance with the two-level human needs analysis. The two-factor theory (Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman) proves to be of importance for this purpose. Without discussing further the validity of this theory, save the use of the critical incident technique in collecting data, we shall limit ourselves to the dual categorization of factors the theory advocates. The extrinsic factors or incentives pertaining to the external work conditions, involve : wages, fringe benefits, security and seniority policies, etc. In parallel, the intrinsic incentives refer to the content of the task in itself, such as opportunities for promotion, responsibilities connected to the job, feelings of self-actualization, etc. For the purpose of this study, this dichotomy allows an harmonious matching between both typologies, needs and incentives, on account of their complementarity.JOB SATISFACTION MODEL : A DYNAMIC PERSPECTIVEThe illustration of the pairing between needs and incentives is shown in Figure 6 under the heading of « inactive framework ». This model would remain useless if a corner-stone was not found upon which dynamic relationships between its components could elaborate. Wolfs need gratification theory puts forward the elements necessary to a dynamic process. More specifically, three cases can be depicted to show the operationality of our job satisfaction/dissatisfaction model (see Figure 7). The three underlined cases permit to bridge the gap between the divergent results concerning Herzberg's theory and also to develop a conceptual definition of job satisfaction, centered on human needs.CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, job satisfaction can be defined as a worker's affective result toward his work roles. This outcome stems from the dynamic interaction between two sets of coordinates : human needs and work incentives. Hence, the worker will feel satisfied or dissatisfied in his work, depending upon the adequacy or the discordance between his perceived needs and the work incentives.1 All the authors mentionned in this summary refer to some sources of reference used in the French version. The reader can easily find them by going back to the bibliography.

En s'appuyant sur une classification centrée sur le degré d'implication par rapport à la négociation collective des conditions de travail, cet article présente la diversité du monde patronal québécois et il en expose certaines composantes. Il traite aussi des mouvements professionnels dans leur ensemble, parfois assimilés à tort aux organisations d'employeurs. Il montre également, données numériques à l'appui, l'importance des divers regroupements recensés et la difficulté, dans certains cas, de les associer à une seule catégorie., The purpose of this paper is to present a classification of employers' associations in the province of Quebec. The criterion used for this classification is the level of involvement of these associations in the collective bargaining process. Although arbitrary, this criterion allows us to subdivide these associations into five different types, to bring out their individual interests and to define the role of more than 570 employers' associations in the province of Quebec. The present article does not pretend to make an assessment as to the efficiency of employers' associations, but is simply trying to present an overall structural view.Starting from the highest level of involvement, five types of associations were identified : employers' unions; vertical or horizontal employers' associations; economie promotion associations; business associations; professional associations. The latter are sometimes wrongly identified with employers' associations. Each type of association is defined according to its specialization, level of intervention, representatives, membership and involvement in labour relations. The associations pertaining to each of these categories are identified and an evaluation of their size and human resources, made in 1992, gives a good idea of their impact on the environment. Employers' unions are defined as employers' associations belonging to a same branch of activity and practicing a collective action in labour relations. Acting as representative of their members in the negotiation, they will sign labour agreements in their name. The juridical extension of an agreement by decree, generally considered as peculiar to Quebec and unique in North America, sometimes leads to the creation of one or several employers' unions. For example, the Guilde des manufacturiers de vêtements de mode du Québec and the Fédération des commissions scolaires du Québec are defined as employers' unions.The vertical and horizontal employers' associations are made up of enterprises dealing either in the same field or in several branches of activity. Their objectives are to answer their members economic, fiscal and social concerns and to represent their general interests before the authorities. An employers' association is called vertical when its membership comes from the same branch of activity, as in the case of the Association des industries forestières du Québec. The horizontal employers' associations gather enterprises with a common characteristic but which are not necessarily working in the same branch of activity, such as the Association des employeurs de la Baie James, or the Association des manufacturiers du Québec. Nearly all branches of the manufacturing activity are represented by one or several employers' associations, whether vertical or horizontal. Their mandate is varied and includes : representation of the industry's interests before the Government, preparation of publicity campaigns, realization of studies on the labour market or on products, scientific research, etc.Economic promotion associations seek to defend and to develop the business world. They exercise a significant role in politics. They intercede with the Government on behalf of their members and they occasionally serve as advisers within committees or government bodies. Besides the immediate interests of their members, the economic promotion associations often convey opinions inspired by the free enterprise System. The Chambers of Commerce are probably the best example of this type of association. Most of Quebec's municipalities have one. The Conseil du patronat du Québec (C.P.Q.) is also an important economie promotion association. The C.P.Q. soon became the main authorized representative of management groups for Quebec's Government, mainly because of its effective representation and philosophy based on the concerted action of social partners.Business associations are organizations which tend to give their members services related to the product market. They are often composed of buyers' groups such as the Groupe Rona-Dismat Inc. or the Épiceries Metro-Richelieu Inc. These associations make it possible for their members to buy as a group from suppliers, to convey the image of a well-known brand on a large territory or to improve their achievements in management. It thus allows them to improve their share of the market. Producers' associations, mainly related to the agricultural field, are also part of this category. Their task is the organization of marketing of their products in a more orderly fashion, mainly by mutual planning. The main objective of these associations is to secure a reasonable income for their members by negotiating with buyers who themselves are often associated. Professional associations are mainly preoccupied with further training for their members and promotion of a profession or trade. Their chief characteristic is to focus on the individual, mainly in respect with the development of knowledge, skills and standards of practice, whatever the status of this person in the organization (self-employed, management personnel or wage-earner, affiliated or not to a certified union). Even though professional associations cannot be identified with employers' associations, they are sometimes connected to the employers' world because of their influence on public policies regarding the development of the professions or trades concerned and, occasionally, the control of marketable services.In the province of Quebec, some professional associations have the status of a professional corporation. An example of this is the Corporation professionnelle des comptables agrées du Québec. There are forty-one associations of this type in Quebec. On the other hand, some professionals and workers may be part of an association without necessarily belonging to a professional corporation. Some of these associations have thousands of members. For example, the Association des courtiers d'assurance de la province de Québec has 8,000 members and the Association des professionnels en gestion des ressources humaines has 2,500 members.The type of classification which has been selected provides a schematic representation of employers' organizations and professional movements in the province of Quebec. It shows that both employers' and workers' associations share similar goals, that is to defend their members' interests in a context where a correlation between the parties involved is essential to the development of society.However, this classification is not hermetic. There are some grey areas surrounding the boundaries of each category and one must not be surprised to find the same entity in more than one association. This can be explained by the extent of their mission.The diversity among the associations is also apparent in this classification and their importance varies. Because of the difference in their nature and membership, some employers' associations have much greater financial and human resources than others. They also exert variable influence on the government and the media, thanks to the means at their disposal and to their reputation. Moreover, it is not easy for the investigator or the State to evaluate these associations, particularly the economic promotion associations and the vertical or horizontal employers' associations. Indeed, since their membership is not exclusive and may result in overlapping, the influence these associations have is not always easy to evaluate either, especially when their position is quite different from one to the other.

Cet article présente un tableau synthèse des études effectuées sur les effets de l’introduction de l'ordinateur par rapport au personnel de bureau. On y formule également, à même les observations tirées des sources recensées, quelques hypothèses relatives aux licenciements, aux relogements du personnel, aux modifications occupationnelles de même qu'aux attitudes de la main-d'oeuvre de bureau., The focus of this study is to present, by means of a synthetical table, a review of the literature dealing with office automation, mainly as to some of its consequences for office workers. Even if those involved in the field of personnel administration are now mainly concerned with the present applications of the computer and its very near possibilities for the personnel fonction itself, it still seems important for the author to investigate the problem of EDP effects upon office workers and this, for two major reasons. First, many authors who studied the problem of automation have restricted their analysis to the factory setting in spite of the numerical importance of white collar workers in industrialized countries. Secondly, a systematic observation of the empirical cases available shows a serious shortcoming as to the scientific methods used.In the first part of the paper, devoted wholly to the synthetical table, the material reviewed is classified according to the methodology used and to the observed consequences of EDP for the white collar workers l. Among the many aspects of EDP effects that could have been pointed out, four (4) important ones were selected on the basis of their practical implications or the controversial nature of the theoretical issues discussed: personnel reduction (I) and reclassification (II), changes in skill requirements (III A) and occupational structure (III B), and employee attitudes toward the technological change (IV) 2.The second section deals with the first two aspects mentioned, namely personnel reduction and reclassification. As far as the personnel reduction is concerned, it does not seem that the implantation of EDP involves a notable cut in the office work force, at least in the short run. In other respects and over a longer period of time, a substantial decrease in employment is to be expected, particularly for the female employees who are usually assigned to the hardware section of the computer and are therefore less specialized to meet the technological innovations of data processing. In practice, the relocation of office workers goes in two different ways. The promotional opportunitiesresulting from the installation of the computer seem scanty because the newly created jobs require more technical knowledge than most white collar workers do have. Over and above the practical implications involved in the job evaluation system, the problem of demotions seems more crucial for older white collar workers because of their difficulty in coping with the speed involved in the new tasks.The last section focuses on the modifications in skill requirements and in the organizational structure, together with employee attitudes concerning these changes. Thus it seems that the employees assigned to the hardware section of the computer see a downgrading of their skill requirements while those of the white collar workers are upgraded. However, since this upgrading does not bring about more promotional opportunities nor a higher salary, white collar workers and employees of the hardware section display a similar pattern of attitudes toward their job, both being as unsatisfied. In comparison to these two groups of workers, the specialized manpower attached to the computer units shows more intrinsic job satisfaction. EDP does not really bring about, by itself, a notable increase in technical and administrative functions. However, its implantation involves a reorganization at the administrative level which is responsible for an increase in manpower at all levels.In conclusion, it is the lack of methodological precision which stands out of the studies investigated. Thus, many authors reviewed, resort to the case study which makes it difficult to elaborate work hypotheses or general trends, while others fail to specify the nature of the tools they use and most of them neglect to take into account an important intervening variable, namely the time-span between the two points of comparison (before and after the change). These deficiencies underline the necessity of devising a method allowing an adequate quantitative analysis.1The studies included in the table are reported by authors in alphabetical order.2These numbers correspond to the subdivisions used in the table.