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Purpose: To estimate the one-year sum of direct costs related to open lower limb fracture treatment in an academic setting in the Netherlands. The secondary objective was to estimate the impact of deep infection and nonunion on one-year total direct costs., Methods: A multi-center, retrospective cost analysis of open lower limb fractures treated in an academic setting in the Netherlands, between 1 January 2017 and 31 December 2018, was conducted. The costing methodology was based on patient level aggregation using a bottom-up approach. A multiple linear regression model was used to predict the total costs based on Fracture-related-infections, multitrauma, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, Gustilo-Anderson grade and nonunion., Results: Overall, 70 fractures were included for analysis, the majority Gustilo-Anderson grade III fractures (57%). Median (IQR) one-year hospital costs were €31,258 (20,812-58,217). Costs were primarily attributed to the length of hospital stay (58%) and surgical procedures (30%). The median length of stay was 16 days, with an increase to 50 days in Fracture-related infections. Subsequent costs (46,075 [25,891-74,938] vs. 15,244 [8970-30,173]; p = 0.002), and total hospital costs (90,862 [52,868-125,004] vs. 29,297 [21,784-40,677]; p < 0.001) were significantly higher for infected cases. It was found that Fracture-related infection, multitrauma, and Gustilo-Anderson grade IIIA-C fractures were significant predictors of increased costs., Conclusion: In treatment of open lower limb fractures, deep infection, higher Gustilo-Anderson classification, and multitrauma significantly increase direct hospital costs. Considering the impact of infection on morbidity and total healthcare costs, future research should focus on preventing Fracture-related infections., Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of interest: The authors of this article declare that they have no known competing financial interests, nor personal relationships that could have influenced the work and outcomes of this paper. The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval: All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committees., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Aim: To evaluate the rates of infection and nonunion and determine the impact of infections on healthcare resource use and costs following open and closed fractures of the tibial shaft requiring open reduction internal fixation. Methods: Healthcare use and costs were compared between patients with and without infections following pen reduction internal fixation using MarketScan ® databases. Results: For commercial patients, the rates of infection and nonunion ranged from 1.82 to 7.44% and 0.48 to 8.75%, respectively, over the 2-year period. Patients with infection had significantly higher rates of hospital readmissions, emergency room visits and healthcare costs compared with patients without infection. Conclusion: This real-world study showed an increasing rate of infection up to 2 years and infection significantly increased healthcare resource use and costs.

Background: Two mainstay surgical options for salvage in scapholunate advanced collapse and scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse are proximal row carpectomy and four-corner arthrodesis. This study evaluates the cost-utility of proximal row carpectomy versus three methods of four-corner arthrodesis for the treatment of scapholunate advanced collapse/scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse wrist., Methods: A cost-utility analysis was performed in accordance with the Second Panel on Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine. A comprehensive literature review was performed to obtain the probability of potential complications. Costs were derived using both societal and health care sector perspectives. A visual analogue scale survey of expert hand surgeons estimated utilities. Overall cost, probabilities, and quality-adjusted life-years were used to complete a decision tree analysis. Both deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed., Results: Forty studies yielding 1730 scapholunate advanced collapse/scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse wrists were identified. Decision tree analysis determined that both four-corner arthrodesis with screw fixation and proximal row carpectomy were cost-effective options, but four-corner arthrodesis with screw was the optimal treatment strategy. Four-corner arthrodesis with Kirschner-wire fixation and four-corner arthrodesis with plate fixation were dominated (inferior) strategies and therefore not cost-effective. One-way sensitivity analysis demonstrated that when the quality-adjusted life-years for a successful four-corner arthrodesis with screw fixation are lower than 26.36, proximal row carpectomy becomes the optimal strategy. However, multivariate probabilistic sensitivity analysis confirmed the results of our model., Conclusions: Four-corner arthrodesis with screw fixation and proximal row carpectomy are both cost-effective treatment options for scapholunate advanced collapse/scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse wrist because of their lower complication profile and high efficacy, with four-corner arthrodesis with screw as the most cost-effective treatment. Four-corner arthrodesis with plate and Kirschner-wire fixation should be avoided from a cost-effectiveness standpoint.

Background: Socioeconomic disparities are an inherent and currently unavoidable aspect of medicine. Knowledge of these disparities is an essential component towards medical decision making, particularly among an increasingly diverse population. While healthcare disparities have been elucidated in a wide variety of orthopaedic conditions and management options, they have not been established among patients who present for treatment of an ununited fracture. The purpose of this study is to answer the following questions: 1) Following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions, are there differences in outcomes between differing ethnic groups? 2) Following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions, are there differences in outcomes between patients with differing education levels? 3) Following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions, are there differences in outcome between patients with differing incomes?, Methods: Between September 2004 and December 2017, operatively treated patients who presented with a long bone fracture non-union were prospectively followed. These patients presented with a variety of fracture non-unions that underwent surgical intervention. Sociodemographic factors were recorded at presentation. Long-term outcomes were evaluated using the Short Musculoskeletal Function Assessment (SMFA), pain scores, post-operative complications and physical exam at latest follow up. The SMFA is a 46-item questionnaire, assessing patient functional and emotional response to musculoskeletal ailments., Results: Three-hundred-twenty-nine patients met inclusion criteria. Patients with a lower education had worse long-term functional outcomes (P < 0.001) and increased pain scores (P = 0.002) at latest follow-up. Patients who made less than $50,000 annually had worse long-term functional outcomes (P = 0.002) and reported higher pain scores (P = 0.003) following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions. Multiple linear regression demonstrated education level to be an independent predictor of long-term functional outcomes following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions (B= -0.154, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]=-10.96 to -1.26, P = 0.014). No differences existed in outcomes or pain scores between those of different ethnic groups. No differences existed regarding post-operative complications and time to union between patients of different ethnic groups, educational levels and income status., Conclusion: Patients with lower education levels and individuals who make less than $50,000 annually have worse functional outcomes following surgical management of (fracture) non-unions. Orthopaedic trauma surgeons should therefore be aware of these disparities, and consider early interventions aimed at optimizing patient recovery in these subsets., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The intention of the current article is to review the epidemiology with related socioeconomic costs, pathophysiology, and treatment options for diaphyseal long bone delayed unions and nonunions. Diaphyseal nonunions in the tibia and in the femur are estimated to occur 4.6-8% after modern intramedullary nailing of closed fractures with an even much higher risk in open fractures. There is a high socioeconomic burden for long bone nonunions mainly driven by indirect costs, such as productivity losses due to long treatment duration. The classic classification of Weber and Cech of the 1970s is based on the underlying biological aspect of the nonunion differentiating between "vital" (hypertrophic) and "avital" (hypo-/atrophic) nonunions, and can still be considered to represent the basis for basic evaluation of nonunions. The "diamond concept" units biomechanical and biological aspects and provides the pre-requisites for successful bone healing in nonunions. For humeral diaphyseal shaft nonunions, excellent results for augmentation plating were reported. In atrophic humeral shaft nonunions, compression plating with stimulation of bone healing by bone grafting or BMPs seem to be the best option. For femoral and tibial diaphyseal shaft fractures, dynamization of the nail is an atraumatic, effective, and cheap surgical possibility to achieve bony consolidation, particularly in delayed nonunions before 24 weeks after initial surgery. In established hypertrophic nonunions in the tibia and femur, biomechanical stability should be addressed by augmentation plating or exchange nailing. Hypotrophic or atrophic nonunions require additional biological stimulation of bone healing for augmentation plating.

Fracture healing is a critically important clinical event for fracture patients and for clinicians who take care of them. The clinical evaluation of fracture healing is based on both radiographic findings and clinical findings. Risk factors for delayed union and nonunion include patient dependent factors such as advanced age, medical comorbidities, smoking, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory use, various genetic disorders, metabolic disease and nutritional deficiency. Patient independent factors include fracture pattern, location, and displacement, severity of soft tissue injury, degree of bone loss, quality of surgical treatment and presence of infection. Established nonunions can be characterised in terms of biologic capacity, deformity, presence or absence of infection, and host status. Hypertrophic, oligotrophic and atrophic radiographic appearances allow the clinician to make inferences about the degree of fracture stability and the biologic viability of the fracture fragments while developing a treatment plan. Non-unions are difficult to treat and have a high financial impact. Indirect costs, such as productivity losses, are the key driver for the overall costs in fracture and non-union patients. Therefore, all strategies that help to reduce healing time with faster resumption of work and activities not only improve medical outcome for the patient, they also help reduce the financial burden in fracture and non-union patients., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Current evidences show that recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 7 (rhBMP-7, eptotermin alfa) can be considered an effective alternative to autologous bone graft (ABG) in the treatment of tibial nonunions. Few studies, so far, have analysed the costs of treating tibial nonunions with either rhBMP-7 or ABG and none of them has specifically considered the Italian situation. The aim of the present study was to capture, through observational retrospective methods, the direct medical costs associated with the treatment of tibial nonunions with rhBMP-7 or ABG in Italy and to compare the cost effectiveness of the two interventions. The secondary objective was to perform a cost-reimbursement analysis for hospitalisations associated with the two treatments. Data of 54 patients with indication for tibial nonunion were collected from existing data sources. Of these patients, 26 were treated with ABG and 28 with rhBMP-7. The study captured the direct medical costs for treating each tibial nonunion, considering both inpatient and outpatient care. The hospital reimbursement was calculated from discharge registries, based on diagnosis-related group (DRG) values. A subgroup of patients (n=30) was also interviewed to capture perceived health during the follow-up, and the quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were subsequently computed. The two groups were similar for what concerns baseline characteristics. While the medical costs incurred during the hospitalisation associated with treatment were on average €3091.21 higher (P<0.001) in patients treated with rhBMP-7 (reflecting the product procurement costs), the costs incurred during the follow-up were on average €2344.45 higher (P=0.02) in patients treated with ABG. Considering all costs incurred from the treatment, there was a borderline statistical evidence (P=0.04) for a mean increase of €795.42, in the rhBMP-7 group. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that, without appropriate reimbursement, the hospital undergoes significant losses (P=0.003) when using rhBMP-7 instead of ABG. In contrast to these losses, in Italy, the average cost to achieve a successful outcome was €488.96 lower in patients treated with rhBMP-7 and, additionally, the cost per QALY gained was below the cost-utility threshold of $50,000., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Tibia shaft fractures (TSF) are common for men and women and cause substantial morbidity, healthcare use, and costs. The impact of nonunions on healthcare use and costs is poorly described. Our goal was to investigate patient characteristics and healthcare use and costs associated with TSF in patients with and without nonunion., Methods: We retrospectively analyzed medical claims in large U.S. managed care claims databases (Thomson Reuters MarketScan®, 16 million lives). We studied patients ≥ 18 years old with a TSF diagnosis (ICD-9 codes: 823.20, 823.22, 823.30, 823.32) in 2006 with continuous pharmaceutical and medical benefit enrollment 1 year prior and 2 years post-fracture. Nonunion was defined by ICD-9 code 733.82 (after the TSF date)., Results: Among the 853 patients with TSF, 99 (12%) had nonunion. Patients with nonunion had more comorbidities (30 vs. 21, pre-fracture) and were more likely to have their TSF open (87% vs. 70%) than those without nonunion. Patients with nonunion were more likely to have additional fractures during the 2-year follow-up (of lower limb [88.9% vs. 69.5%, P < 0.001], spine or trunk [16.2% vs. 7.2%, P = 0.002], and skull [5.1% vs. 1.3%, P = 0.008]) than those without nonunion. Nonunion patients were more likely to use various types of surgical care, inpatient care (tibia and non-tibia related: 65% vs. 40%, P < 0.001) and outpatient physical therapy (tibia-related: 60% vs. 42%, P < 0.001) than those without nonunion. All categories of care (except emergency room costs) were more expensive in nonunion patients than in those without nonunion: median total care cost $25,556 vs. $11,686, P < 0.001. Nonunion patients were much more likely to be prescribed pain medications (99% vs. 92%, P = 0.009), especially strong opioids (90% vs. 76.4%, P = 0.002) and had longer length of opioid therapy (5.4 months vs. 2.8 months, P < 0.001) than patients without nonunion. Tibia fracture patterns in men differed from those in women., Conclusions: Nonunions in TSF's are associated with substantial healthcare resource use, common use of strong opioids, and high per-patient costs. Open fractures are associated with higher likelihood of nonunion than closed ones. Effective screening of nonunion risk may decrease this morbidity and subsequent healthcare resource use and costs.

Autograft is considered the gold standard in non-union treatment. However, it is associated with significant morbidity and limited biological activity. The introduction of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) has added a valuable tool to the surgeon's possibilities. The initial expectations of the effectiveness of BMPs were high, but over the years the union rate of BMPs was shown to be comparable with autograft. In this overview, both treatment modalities are compared. The off-label use of BMPs, the combination of BMPs and autograft, and the economic perspective of BMP use are summarized. In their current formulation, BMPs are an effective alternative for autograft in selected cases. The beneficial effect outweighs the economic costs. Widening of the indication to other long bone non-unions and new formulations are expected in the nearby future., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Since its introduction in Germany, the DRG (Diagnosis-Related Groups) system is often fraught with negative connotations. Frequent points of criticism are a deterioration of patient care by decreasing length of stay (LOS) in hospital and a decline in reimbursement. The following investigation analyzes and compares the development of length of stay and reimbursement in hand surgery based on the 3 most common elective procedures., Material and Methods: The main diagnoses scaphoid nonunion (PSA), Dupuytren's contracture (DK) and rhizarthrosis (RIA) were evaluated for number of cases, length of stay, reimbursement per day and total reimbursement in 2000 as well as 2010 based on the data of our clinic. Patients covered by the Employers' Liability Insurance were not included. Only inpatient cases were considered., Results: In PSA and RIA an increase in the number of cases is reported (PSA: +11 cases; RIA: +26 cases) and a decrease in DK ( - 7 cases). The sum of the total hospital days declined despite rising case numbers predominantly between 65 (RIA) and 260 days (DK). The average LOS decreased by 3.1 days at DK (48.4%) to 4.1 days at PSA (52.6%). Average revenues per day in 2000 amounted to 379 €, which corresponds to 442 € adjusted for inflation in 2010. Average revenue per day in 2010 was 755 € (RIA), 797 € (PSA) and 876 € (DK). Revenue per case in 2010 were only higher than in 2000, when 5 (RIA) or 6 hospital days (DK and PSA) were not exceeded., Conclusion: With declining revenue per case, the average income per day increased by a reduction in hospital days. A positive or at least equivalent revenue situation can thus only be achieved by a distinct concentration of labor and reduction of hospital days under the DRG-system., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) is a classification system, which groups patients according to their diagnosis and resource consumption. Common hand surgical diagnoses and procedures were processed using national DRG-groupers of six European countries. The upper thresholds of length of stay (LoS) are indicated for every country with the exception of Spain. The mean value in the series was 9.9 days for Germany, 4.5 days for Austria, 10.7 days for Italy, 9.7 days for Sweden and 9.4 days for the United Kingdom (UK). Germany and Austria also have lower thresholds of LoS and the average LoS.Multiple finger replantation presented the highest single case reimbursement in Germany, Austria and the UK (13,825 €, 10,576 € and 9,198 €). Scaphoid non-union had the highest single case reimbursement in Italy (2,676 €), flap coverage of wounds in Spain (5,506 €) and trapeziometacarpal arthritis in Sweden (5,350 €). The mean values for single case reimbursement were as follows: Germany 3,211 €, Austria 2,821 €, Italy 1,947 €, Spain 3,594 €, Sweden 2,403 € and the UK 3,253 €. Ten out of 19 cases showed the highest reimbursement in Spain, followed by the UK (5 cases), Sweden (2 cases), Germany and Austria (1 case each). Applying the case numbers of our clinic to the reimbursement system of each country, total proceeds would be 2.25 million € in Spain, 1.79 million € in Germany as well as the UK, 1.75 million € in Austria, 1.63 million € in Sweden and 1.22 million € in Italy. The consequences of international differences in efficiency and reimbursement are hard to assess as they are influenced by multiple factors that are seldom purely market-driven. However, the consideration of international data for benchmarking and refinement of national compensation systems should be a useful instrument.

Background: Delay in fracture healing is a complex clinical and economic issue for patients and health services., Objectives: To assess the incremental effectiveness and costs of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) on fracture healing in acute fractures and nonunions compared with standards of care., Search Strategy: We searched The Cochrane Library (2008, Issue 4), MEDLINE, and other major health and health economics databases (to October 2008)., Selection Criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and full or partial economic evaluations of BMP for fracture healing in skeletally mature adults., Data Collection and Analysis: All clinical and economic data were extracted by one author and checked by another., Main Results: Eleven RCTs, all at high risk of bias, and four economic evaluations were included. Apart from one study, the times to fracture healing were comparable between the BMP and control groups. There was some evidence for increased healing rates, without requiring a secondary procedure, of BMP compared with usual care control in acute, mainly open, tibial fractures (risk ratio (RR) 1.19, 95% CI 0.99 to 1.43). The pooled RR for achieving union for nonunited fractures was 1.02 (95% CI 0.90 to 1.15). One study found no difference in union for patients who had corrective osteotomy for radial malunions. Data from three RCTs indicated that fewer secondary procedures were required for acute fracture patients treated with BMP versus controls (RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.83). Adverse events experienced were infection, hardware failure, pain, donor site morbidity, heterotopic bone formation and immunogenic reactions. The evidence on costs for BMP-2 for acute open tibia fractures is from one large RCT. This indicates that the direct medical costs associated with BMP would generally be higher than treatment with standard care, but this cost difference may decrease as fracture severity increases. Limited evidence suggests that the direct medical costs associated with BMP could be offset by faster healing and reduced time off work for patients with the most severe open tibia fractures., Authors' Conclusions: This review highlights a paucity of data on the use of BMP in fracture healing as well as considerable industry involvement in currently available evidence. There is limited evidence to suggest that BMP may be more effective than controls for acute tibial fracture healing, however, the use of BMP for treating nonunion remains unclear. The limited available economic evidence indicates that BMP treatment for acute open tibial fractures may be more favourable economically when used in patients with the most severe fractures.

The parameter of health economics in the use of any contemporary medical module plays a dominant role in decision making. A prospective nonrandomised comparative study of the direct medical costs on the first attempt of treating aseptic nonunions of tibial fractures, with either autologous-iliac-crest-bone-graft (ICBG) or bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7), is presented. Twenty-seven consecutive patients, who were successfully treated for fracture nonunions, were divided into two groups. Group 1 (n = 12) received ICBG and group 2 (n = 15) received BMP-7. All patients healed their nonunions, and the financial analysis presented represents a best-case scenario. Three out of 12 of the ICBG group required revision surgery while just one out of 15 required it in the BMP-7 group. Average hospital stay was 10.66 vs. 8.66 days, time-to-union 6.9 vs. 5.5 months, hospitals costs pound2,133.6 vs. pound1,733.33, and theatre costs were pound2,413.3 vs. pound906.67 for the ICBG and BMP-7 groups, respectively. The BMP-7 cost was pound3002.2. Fixation-implant was pound696.4 vs. pound592.3, radiology pound570 vs. pound270, outpatient pound495.8 vs. pound223.33, and other costs were pound451.6 vs. pound566.27 for the ICBG and BMP-7 groups, respectively. The average cost of treatment with BMP-7 was 6.78% higher (P = 0.1) than with ICBG, and most of this (41.1%) was related to the actual price of the BMP-7. In addition to the satisfactory efficacy and safety of BMP-7 in comparison to the gold standard of ICBG, as documented in multiple studies, its cost effectiveness is advocated favourably in this analysis.

The goal of this review is to present the most updated knowledge derived from basic science, animal studies and clinical trials, concerning biophysical stimulation of bone repair through low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS), with particular reference to the management of delayed unions and nonunions. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound LIPUS has been proved to significantly stimulate and accelerate fresh fracture healing in animal studies and in randomized controlled clinical trials. LIPUS also appears as an effective and safe home treatment of aseptic and septic delayed-unions and nonunions, with a healing rate ranging from 70% to 93% in different, nonrandomized, studies. Advantages of the use of this technology that may avoid the need for additional complex operations for the treatment of nonunions, include efficacy, safety, ease of use and favourable cost/benefit ratio. Outcomes depend on the site of nonunion, time elapsed from trauma, stability at the site of nonunion and host type. The detailed biophysical process by which low-intensity pulsed ultrasound LIPUS stimulates bone regeneration still remains unknown, even if various effects on bone cells in vitro and in vivo have been described.

A review of the existing evidence on economic costs of treatment of long-bone fracture non-unions has retrieved 9 papers. Mostly the tibial shaft non-unions have been utilised as models for these economic analyses. Novel treatment strategies like BMP-7 grafting, Ilizarov ring external fixation or supplementary use of therapeutic ultrasound devices have been compared with standard methods of treatment focusing on direct and indirect costs and expenses. A cost-identification query was conducted and revealed costs of pound 15,566, pound 17,200 and pound 16,330 for humeral, femoral, and tibial non-unions respectively on a "best-case scenario". The existing scientific evidence can only imply the extent of the economic burden of long-bone non-unions. Further systematic studies are needed to assess the direct medical, direct non-medical, indirect, and monetised quality of life and psychosocial costs of non-unions.

We reviewed 78 femoral and tibial nonunions treated between January 1992 and December 2003. Of these, we classified 41 in 40 patients as complex cases because of infection (22), bone loss (6) or failed previous surgery (13). The complex cases were all treated with Ilizarov frames. At a mean time of 14.1 months (4 to 38), 39 had healed successfully. Using the Association for the Study and Application of the Methods of Ilizarov scoring system we obtained 17 excellent, 14 good, four fair and six poor bone results. The functional results were excellent in 14 patients, good in 14, fair in two and poor in two. A total of six patients were lost to follow-up and two had amputations so were not evaluated for final functional assessment. All but two patients were very satisfied with the results. The average cost of treatment to the treating hospital was approximately pound 30,000 per patient. We suggest that early referral to a tertiary centre could reduce the morbidity and prolonged time off work for these patients. The results justify the expense, but the National Health Service needs to make financial provision for the reconstruction of this type of complex nonunion.

Traditional bone setters are rampant in the West African subregion but the atrocities committed by them have never been reported hence the need for this article that deals with the menace caused by them. All patients referred to the University College Hospital between 1996 and 2001 were included in this study. Only a few number of the patients have been selected just to illustrate the menace caused by the traditional bonesetters in so many African societies. The deformities, financial loss and amputations resulting from the management by traditional bonesetters have been highlighted. Suggestions are made on how to improve awareness in the way of adequate communications through televisions, radio and the press. Much need to be done in the society as it was found in the study that poverty or lack of education alone is not the major cause of the society seeking the help of the traditional healers, but probably the culture and traditional beliefs of the society.

There are few reports examining the effect of surgical delay on outcomes following operative treatment of lower extremity fractures. Delays in the surgery for closed tibial shaft fractures have been reported to increase the overall complication rate, postoperative hospital stays and crude costs to the health care system. Our purpose was to estimate the cost-effectiveness and cost-utility associated with the adoption of a programme of early operative treatment of all closed tibial shaft fractures. We performed cost analyses based upon data obtained from an observational study. A cohort of patients with closed tibial shaft fractures was identified at a university-affiliated level I trauma centre. Patients were divided into an early surgical group (within 12 h) and delayed surgical group (longer than 12 h). Study outcomes included time to fracture union (weeks), direct inpatient and outpatient costs associated with each intervention, loss of productivity costs, and utilities (patient health perception) as determined from content experts. Sixteen patients were operated on within 12 h of injury and 19 patients were treated later than 12 h after their fracture. These groups were similar for all baseline variables. The average time to fracture union was 28.2 weeks (SD 9.4) and 44.2 weeks (SD 7.4) for the early surgical group and the delayed surgical group, respectively ( p<0.01). When the costs associated with productivity losses were included in the cost-effectiveness analysis, savings were noted of 7,330 CD dollars per patient and of 458 CD dollars for each week that a fracture healed more quickly with early treatment. However, when the loss of patient productivity was not included, there was a cost per week of 67 CD dollars. A difference of 0.09 quality adjusted life years (QALYs) in favour of the early surgery was found, which yielded a savings of 81,444 CD dollars per QALY gained when the productivity losses were included and a cost per QALY of 11,922 CD dollars when the productivity losses were not included. Both cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses were robust. Early plate fixation of closed tibial shaft fractures results in significantly shorter time to fracture union, fewer postoperative complications, significant cost effectiveness and greater QALYs gained when compared with delayed treatment. Inferences from this study are strengthened by the comprehensive abstraction of cost data and detailed cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses.

The financial and medical records of 11 patients diagnosed with a tibial nonunion were evaluated in order to assess the costs associated with the care of this clinical entity. The initial tibia fractures were seen at Hermann Hospital (Houston, Texas) between April 1991 and June 1993. We included only those patients who had a diagnosis of tibial shaft nonunion which we defined as a tibial fracture which was without radiographic or clinical evidence of progressive healing 6 months after the initial injury. A total of 9 patients were available for evaluation and 2 were lost to follow-up.

Seven patients with supramalleolar nonunions after tibial plafond fractures underwent ankle arthrodesis combined with surgical treatment of the nonunion. Stabilization of the nonunion and the ankle consisted of medial and lateral plating for two hypertrophic cases and medial external fixation for five atrophic cases. Two of the atrophic nonunions were infected, and the distal tibia below the nonunion was resected and distraction osteogenesis from a proximal level was used to fill the resulting defect. Both the nonunion and ankle arthrodesis healed in six patients in an average of 7.9 months (range, 4-20 months). The nonunion failed to heal in one patient and required a below-knee amputation. The average cost of care was $66,491 per patient. Before surgery, the average patient ankle score was 25 (range, 15-50), and at a median of 35 months' follow-up the average score was 64 (range, 18-79 months). Three patients had scores in the "good" range, two in the "fair" range, one in the "poor" range, and one was rated a treatment failure. The SF-36 scores were significantly lower than age-matched population-based normal subjects. Limb salvage was possible in six of these seven patients, but the treatment times were long, complications frequent, and the cost of care high.

The tibia, being the most commonly fractured long bone, is associated with a high incidence of delayed union and non-union. A previously published prospective, randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled tibia study demonstrated that pulsed, low-intensity ultrasound shortened the time to a healed fracture and significantly reduced the incidence of delayed union. The economics of treating tibia fractures has never been calculated. We have reviewed the literature pertaining to the tibia, the results of the above published tibia study, and stratified the data from that study for those patient and fracture co-morbidity factors that can influence healing of tibia fractures. Three economic models are presented with the total costs of treating a pool of 1,000 patients with tibial shaft fractures divided into two treatment paths--operative and conservative. These costs include surgery and recovery, outpatient costs, and Workers' Compensation costs for both the primary and secondary procedures, and emergency room and disability costs. The first model does not use low-intensity ultrasound and provides a summary of the costs associated with fracture treatment for each treatment path. The second model uses low-intensity ultrasound adjunctively with the conservatively treated group while the third model uses ultrasound adjunctively in both the operative and conservative groups. When comparing the conservative treatment path of Model 2 to Model 1 a cost savings of over $15,000 per case (40%) is realized by dramatically lowering secondary procedures and Workers' Compensation costs when pulsed low-intensity ultrasound is used adjunctively with conservative treatment. A similar savings of over $13,000 per case results from the use of ultrasound in the operative treatment path of Model 3 when compared with the standard operative care of Model 1. The total savings realized is over $14.6 million when adjunctively using low-intensity ultrasound in both the conservative and operative treatment paths. These analyses demonstrate that reduced healing time could yield substantial cost savings for third party payors, employers, and government agencies by lessening the need for secondary procedures and reducing the amount of Workers' Compensation payments.

Unlabelled: To assess the cost-effectiveness of various strategies for the diagnostic management of clinically suspected scaphoid fracture, a decision-analytic model was built to evaluate three strategies and to compare them with a (clairvoyant) reference diagnostic management strategy., Methods: Evaluated strategies were: (A) repeated radiography up to 2 wk; (B) repeat radiography up to 6 wk; and (C) radiography, followed by bone scintigraphy in patients with negative initial radiographs. Therapy consisted of 12 wk of immobilization for a radiographically or scintigraphically proven fracture. Diagnostic costs, therapeutic costs, period of immobilization and nonunion rate were calculated for all three strategies. Estimates were derived from a descriptive management study using bone scintigraphy and available literature. Sensitivity analyses were performed., Results: Overall costs were 273.7, 317.7 and 316.1 European Currency Units (ECU) for Strategies A, B and C, respectively (1 ECU = 1.15 U.S. dollar). Strategy B led to the longest average period of immobilization (8.6 wk), while Strategy A resulted in the highest nonunion rate (4.7%). The costs per nonunion saved for the additional use of bone scintigraphy (Strategy C) was ECU 2618 when compared to Strategy A., Conclusion: The use of bone scintigraphy in the diagnostic management of scaphoid fractures is accurate, convenient for patients and cost-effective.