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Background The selection and the spread of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors to the main classes of insecticides used in vector control tools are a major and ongoing challenge to malaria vector control programmes. This study aimed to determine the intensity of vector resistance to insecticides in three regions of Benin with different agro-ecological characteristics. Methods Larvae of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) were collected from September to November 2017 in different larval sites in three northern Benin communes: Parakou, Kandi and Malanville. Two to five-day-old, non-blood-fed, female mosquitoes were exposed to papers impregnated with deltamethrin, permethrin and bendiocarb at dosages of 1 × the diagnostic dose, 5 × and 10 × to determine the intensity of resistance in these vectors. Molecular frequencies of the kdr L1014F and ace-1R G119S insecticide resistance mutations and levels of detoxification enzymes were determined for mosquitoes sampled at each study site. Results Resistance to pyrethroids (permethrin and deltamethrin) was recorded in all three communes with mortality rates below 60% using the diagnostic dose (1x). The results obtained after exposure of An. gambiae to permethrin 10 × were 99% in Kandi, 98% in Malanville and 99% in Parakou. With deltamethrin 10x, mortality rates were 100% in Kandi, 96% in Malanville and 73% in Parakou. For the diagnostic dose of bendiocarb, suspected resistance was recorded in the communes of Malanville (97%) and Kandi (94%) while sensitivity was observed in Parakou (98%).Using the 10 × dose, mortality was 98% in Kandi, 100% in Malanville and 99% in Parakou. The frequencies of the kdr L1014F allele varied between 59 and 83% depending on the sites and species of the An. gambiae complex, while the frequency of the ace-1R G119S gene varied between 0 and 5%. Biochemical tests showed high levels of oxidase and esterase activity compared to the susceptible colony strain of An. gambiae sensu stricto (Kisumu strain). Conclusion Anopheles gambiae showed a generalized loss of susceptibility to permethrin and deltamethrin but also showed moderate to high intensity of resistance in different regions of Benin. This high intensity of resistance is a potential threat to the effectiveness of vector control.

Background Insecticide resistance is threatening the effectiveness of efforts to control malaria vectors in Benin. This study explores the levels and mechanisms of insecticide resistance in An. gambiae s.l. to pyrethroids. Methods Larvae were collected from August 2017 to July 2018 in five communes in southern Benin (Adjohoun, Allada, Bohicon, Cotonou, and Porto-Novo) representing diverse ecological regions, and were reared in Benin’s insectary. Two- to five-day-old female mosquitoes from each district were exposed to multiple doses of deltamethrin and permethrin (1×, 2×, 5×, and 10×) using the WHO insecticide resistance intensity bioassay. The effect of pre-exposure to the synergist, piperonyl butoxide (PBO), was also tested at different pyrethroid doses. Molecular allele frequencies of kdr (1014F) and ace-1R (119S) insecticide resistance mutations and levels of detoxification enzymes were determined for mosquitoes sampled from each study area. Results An. gambiae s.l. were resistant to pyrethroid-only exposure up to 10× the diagnostic doses in all the study sites for both deltamethrin and permethrin. Mortality was significantly higher in An. gambiae s.l. pre-exposed to PBO followed by exposure to deltamethrin or permethrin compared to mosquitoes exposed to deltamethrin or permethrin only (p kdr resistance allele (1014F) frequency was high (75–100%), while the ace-1 resistance allele (G119S) frequency was low (0–3%). Analysis of the metabolic enzymatic activity of An. gambiae s.l. showed overexpression of nonspecific esterases and glutathione S-transferases (GST) in all study sites. In contrast to the PBO results, oxidase expression was low and was similar to the susceptible An. gambiae s.s. Kisumu strain in all sites. Conclusion There is high-intensity resistance to pyrethroids in southern Benin. However, pre-exposure to PBO significantly increased susceptibility to the pyrethroids in the different An. gambiae s.l. populations sampled. The use of PBO insecticide-treated bed nets may help maintain the gains in An. gambiae (s.l.) control in southern Benin. Graphical Abstract

Background Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are designed to survive and sustain their physical barrier for 3 years in household conditions. However, studies have shown that most of these nets are usually torn or no longer present in the households in less than 3 years. This study was initiated in Benin to compare the survivorship and physical integrity of seven types of LLINs in a same socio-geographic area. Methods In August 2017, 1890 households were selected in 9 villages in the municipality of Zagnanado in central Benin. Each one of the selected households received one of the seven LLIN products: Aspirational®, DawaPlus® 2.0, OlysetNet®, PermaNet® 2.0, PermaNet® 3.0, Royal Sentry® and Yorkool®. Overall, 270 LLINs of each type were freely distributed in Zagnanado, at a rate of 30 LLINs per type per village. These bed nets have been monitored and evaluated every 6 months to identify the most resilient and preferred LLINs in the community. Net survivorship was assessed using the rate of net loss and physical condition. Results The survivorship of all types of LLIN was estimated at 92% (95% CI 90.33–92.96) after 6 months and 70% (95% CI 67.25–71.81) after a year of use. At 12 months, all bed nets monitored were below the NetCalc model threshold of 92.8% for an LLIN with a lifespan of 3 years. Only 1.73% of all types of LLIN had a visible loss of integrity after 6 months with a median proportionate hole index (PHI) estimated at zero. The percentage significantly increased after 12 months with 10.41% of damaged nets (all types of LLINs). The median PHI for each brand of net was 23, 196, 141, 23, 23, 121 and 72, respectively for Aspirational®, DawaPlus® 2.0, OlysetNet®, PermaNet® 2.0, PermaNet® 3.0, Royal Sentry® and Yorkool®. A significant difference was noted between the PHI at 6 and 12 months (p ®2.0, OlysetNet® and Royal Sentry® suffered significantly more damage compared to the others (p Conclusion The results of this study showed that after a year of use, the survivorship of the 7 LLIN products in households was lower than expected. However, all the LLIN products successfully met WHO standards for physical integrity after 12 months of use. The monitoring continues. The next steps will help to identify the most sustainable LLINs.

Context: Recent publications on WHO recommended methods for estimating the survival of LLINs are good guidelines for assessing the performance of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). Thus, this field trial study was undertaken to evaluate the durability of the Yorkool® LN mosquito net distributed during the 2017 campaign in Benin. Methods: The monitoring of Yorkool® LN nets was carried out in two districts (Djougou III and Barienou) in Djougou, department of Donga, northern Benin from October 2017 to March 2019. A representative sample of 250 households that had received the Yorkool® LN polyester LLINs during the 2017 campaign was selected in the rural and urban areas of each district and monitored for 6, 12 and 18 months. An evaluation of the survival of Yorkool® LN nets was conducted based on the rate of loss and physical condition of the surviving nets as measured by the proportional hole index (pHI). Finally, the chemical efficacy of these LLINs during each period was determined using the WHO cone tests. Results: Survival of Yorkool® LN nets was similar in both rural and urban areas, although there was a difference in survival between the 6-month (95.3%), 12-month (89.7%), and 18-month follow-up periods (74.4%). A difference in survival was also observed between the NetCalc model (84%) compared to the Yorkool® LN nets of this study (74.4%). The attrition rate was 29.6% for LLINs at 18 months. Surprisingly, the physical integrity of the LLINs was minimally affected in the municipality. Indeed, the proportion of mosquito nets in good condition without a hole was 51.8% compared to 56.8% with a hole after 18 months. Only 7.8% of the LLINs in the two districts were damaged compared to 2.6% which needed to be replaced. The washing frequency, location of the LLINs and the frequency of use are some factors contributing to the appearance of the holes in LLINs. The bio-efficacy results of LLINs based on the cone test were good with mortality rates of 74%, 66%, 72% and 58% respectively after baseline, 6, 12 and 18 months of use. Conclusions: The observed differences in the survival of Yorkool® LN nets are due to community living conditions and movements and not to the equipment used to manufacture LLINs. However, the estimated median survival has shown that Yorkool® LN nets would have an average lifespan of 2 years 8 months despite their fairly good physical condition. These results may be useful to the National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) during the period of replacement of these nets on the field.

Background: The purpose of this report is to provide information on Culicidae diversity; biting behavior and spatio-seasonal variation of abundance of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Culex quinquefasciatus in rural and urban settings of the Alibori and Donga regions, Northern Benin, where an indoor residual spraying (IRS) campaign to control malaria is planned. Methods: Both human landing catches, associated with pyrethrum spray catches were used to monitor the mosquito populations in 12 sites with 1 urban and 1 rural located in each of the 6 districts randomly selected in the two targeted regions. After morphological identification of all mosquito specimens, biting behavior and density of An. gambiae s.l. and Cx quinquefasciatus were studied. PCR was also performed on An. gambiae s.l., to identify sibling species and its seasonal variation. Results: A total of 10,367 mosquitoes were captured, related to 14 species of the genera, Anopheles, Aedes, Culex and Mansonia. Of the total species collection, 40.39% were An. gambiae s.l. and 56.85% were Cx. quinquefasciatus. An. gambiae s.l. was more abundant in Donga (2521 specimens) compared with Alibori (1666 specimens). The opposite trend was observed with Cx. quinquefasciatus (2162 specimens in Donga against 4028 in Alibori). An. gambiae s.l. was predominant and displayed a higher blood feeding rate in rural areas, whereas Cx. quinquefasciatus was in majority in urban areas. An. gambiae s.l. was more endophagic, whereas Cx. quinquefasciatus showed similar indoor and outdoor biting behavior. An. gambiae s.l. was composed of An. coluzzii found in majority in the drought, and An. gambiae, which was predominant in the rainy season. Conclusion: The predominance of the malaria vector, An. gambiae s.l. and their higher blood feeding rate and their significantly high endophagy in rural areas indicate that these areas should be primarily targeted with the IRS operations to have a substantial impact on malaria transmission. Endophagy, characteristic of An. gambiae s.l. in our study area, suggests that IRS will have a positive impact on vector control if implemented 1 week before June that is the onset of the rainy season.

Background In 2004, in response to high levels of treatment failure associated with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) resistance, Benin changed its first-line malaria treatment from SP to artemisinin-based combination therapy for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Resistance to SP is conferred by accumulation of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in P. falciparum genes involved in folate metabolism, dihydrofolate reductase (Pfdhfr) and dihydropteroate synthase (Pfdhps), targeted by pyrimethamine and sulfadoxine, respectively. Because SP is still used for intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women (IPTp) and seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMCP) in Benin, the prevalence of Pfdhfr and Pfdhps SNPs in P. falciparum isolates collected in 2017 were investigated. Methods This study was carried out in two sites where the transmission of P. falciparum malaria is hyper-endemic: Klouékanmey and Djougou. Blood samples were collected from 178 febrile children 6–59 months old with confirmed uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria and were genotyped for SNPs associated with SP resistance. Results The Pfdhfr triple mutant IRN (N51I, C59R, and S108N) was the most prevalent (84.6%) haplotype and was commonly found with the Pfdhps single mutant A437G (50.5%) or with the Pfdhps double mutant S436A and A437G (33.7%). The quintuple mutant, PfdhfrIRN/PfdhpsGE (A437G and K540E), was rarely observed (0.8%). The A581G and A613S mutant alleles were found in 2.6 and 3.9% of isolates, respectively. Six isolates (3.9%) were shown to harbour a mutation at codon I431V, recently identified in West African parasites. Conclusions This study showed that Pfdhfr triple IRN mutants are near fixation in this population and that the highly sulfadoxine-resistant Pfdhps alleles are not widespread in Benin. These data support the continued use of SP for chemoprevention in these study sites, which should be complemented by periodic nationwide molecular surveillance to detect emergence of resistant genotypes.

Background: It is generally accepted that one of the reasons for the declining effectiveness of vector control tools (LLINs, IRS) is the misuse of these tools. Some people sleep outside while the walls of houses are treated with insecticide to protect people from mosquito bites.Methods:To check whether communities that misuse these tools are more exposed to malaria, we used the technique of direct and participatory observation of sleeping habits and we clocked every 30 min, the activities and positions of the communities from 7pm to 7am. The survey was conducted in 3 departments Northern Benin. These were mainly treatments related to variance analysis and descriptive statistics. Softwares used included SPSS 21, SAS 9.2 and Arcgis 10.4.Results: The study shows that 95% of the villages population included in the study stay in their rooms from 7:00 pm to 7:00 am, and only 5% of household members are outdoors during same time intervals during the harmattan season. On the other hand, during hot weather, there are more households outdoors (37%). Less than 20% of household members are outside their rooms during the harmattan season. This number decreases gradually until 10:00 pm when all of them are inside their rooms.Student Newman Keuls test shows that the household members being inside or outside their rooms does not depend on the urbanization situation of the village, but rather on the period.65% exposed to mosquito bites gave irritation as the main reason for their behavior and 15% because of heat and lack of space. Overall, because of household member mobility and malaria vector behaviors, human exposure to An. gambiae was higher outside than inside, despite all the observed food preferences in the vectors.Conclusion:To curtail residual malaria transmission, it must be prioritized to raise awareness in the best use of the tools and provide other complementary control tools for use outside the home.

Background: It is generally accepted that one of the reasons for the declining effectiveness of vector control tools (LLINs, IRS) is the misuse of these tools. Some people sleep outside while the walls of houses are treated with insecticide to protect people from mosquito bites.Methods:To check whether communities that misuse these tools are more exposed to malaria, we used the technique of direct and participatory observation of sleeping habits and we clocked every 30 min, the activities and positions of the communities from 7pm to 7am. The survey was conducted in 3 departments Northern Benin. These were mainly treatments related to variance analysis and descriptive statistics. Softwares used included SPSS 21, SAS 9.2 and Arcgis 10.4.Results: The study shows that 95% of the villages population included in the study stay in their rooms from 7:00 pm to 7:00 am, and only 5% of household members are outdoors during same time intervals during the harmattan season. On the other hand, during hot weather, there are more households outdoors (37%). Less than 20% of household members are outside their rooms during the harmattan season. This number decreases gradually until 10:00 pm when all of them are inside their rooms.Student Newman Keuls test shows that the household members being inside or outside their rooms does not depend on the urbanization situation of the village, but rather on the period. 65% exposed to mosquito bites gave irritation as the main reason for their behavior and 15% because of heat and lack of space. Overall, because of household member mobility and malaria vector behaviors, human exposure to An. gambiae was higher outside than inside, despite all the observed food preferences in the vectors.Conclusion:To curtail residual malaria transmission, it must be prioritized to raise awareness in the best use of the tools and provide other complementary control tools for use outside the home.

Background Since 2008, Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) has been performed in Benin in 19 districts, including 4 in southern Benin, 9 in Atacora, and 8 in Atacora, Alibori and Donga in northern Benin. However, Benin still struggles with questions about IRS cost–benefit and epidemiological impact. Lessons learned and challenges from 10 years of IRS in Benin to be shared with the stakeholders involved in vector control implementation for decision-making. Methods Entomological parameters have been assessed entomological parameters in IRS communes since 2008. In all IRS intervention communes, decreases in human biting rate (HBR) of Anopheles gambiae, blood feeding inhibition and entomological inoculation rate (EIR) as compared to control district have been measured. Results EIR was reduced by 80–90%, which is encouraging, but should be observed with caution because: (i) the reduction may be insufficient to decrease epidemiological indicators given that the residual EIR in IRS districts is still higher than it is in some regions of stable malaria; (ii) the reduction in EIR is based on comparisons with control communes, but it is difficult to select control areas with the same environmental characteristics as intervention areas; (iii) despite the reduction, half of all mosquitoes that entered IRS-treated houses succeeded in taking human blood meals. Further, there are behaviours among Benin’s population that limit IRS efficacy, including recent data showing that > 90% of people are not protected by IRS between 7 and 10 p.m. This is due to the fact that they remain outdoors and that most people are not protected from mosquito bites after 10 p.m. because they either sleep outdoors without IRS protection or indoors without an ITN. Moreover, people have large amounts of clothing hanging on walls where mosquitoes can rest instead of IRS-treated walls. Finally, other components are important to consider in implementing IRS among which: (i) Vector resistance management strategies are sometimes poorly understood; this is actually different from the need to replace one insecticide with another after the emergence of resistance; (ii) African countries should prepare to finance IRS themselves. Conclusion To curtail residual malaria transmission, additional interventions able to target vectors escaping IRS should be prioritized.

Background The current study shows the results of three years of IRS entomological monitoring (2016, before intervention; 2017 and 2018, after intervention) performed in Alibori and Donga, northern Benin. Methods Mosquito collections were performed on a monthly basis using human landing catches and pyrethrum spray catches in six districts including four treated with Actellic 300 CS (Kandi, Gogounou, Djougou and Copargo) and two untreated (Bembèrèkè and Kouandé) which served as control sites. Key transmission indicators of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) as well as the residual activity of Actellic 300 CS assessed through WHO cone tests, were determined. Results The residual efficacy duration of Actellic 300 CS after the two IRS campaigns (2017 and 2018) was 4–5 months (May–September). The parity rate and the sporozoite index of An. gambiae (s.l.) were 36.62% and 0.71%, respectively, after the first spray round in treated areas compared to 57.24% and 3.7%, respectively, in the control areas (P vs 9.75 ib/m in the control areas, corresponding to a reduction of 84.61%. A decrease in the parity rate (46.26%), sporozoite index (85.75%) and EIR (87.27%) was observed for An. gambiae (s.l.) after the first round of IRS (June–October 2017) compared to the pre-intervention period (June–October 2016). The density of An. gambiae (s.l.) ranged between 0.38–0.48 per house in treated areas vs 1.53–1.76 An. gambiae (s.l.) per house respectively after the first and second IRS rounds. Conclusions This study showed the positive impact of IRS in reducing key entomological parameters of malaria transmission in Alibori and Donga. However, the considerable blood-feeding rate of An. gambiae (s.l.) in spray areas, stress the need for the population to sleep under long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) in addition, to prevent from mosquito bites which did not succeed in resting on sprayed walls.

Background: Climate variability influence the diversity and abundance of malaria vectors and thereby on malaria transmission dynamics. Examine its effect on Anopheles parameters involved in transmission may predict the potential malaria hotspot as a right target for its control intervention strategies. Here, we investigated the influence of meteorological parameters on the aggressiveness and infectivity of Anopheles in two health districts zones where IRS has been extended in Northern Benin. Methods: Mosquito collections were carried out using human landing catches to evaluate rates of aggression and infectivity in twelve villages. Concomitantly, meteorological data from synoptic stations of Benin and neighbouring countries were collected in 2016-2017. Results: The spatial distribution of infective bites of An. gambiae is characterized by an intense aggression in the rural villages of the study area. Analysis of variances showed significant HBR difference according to the period but not according to the locality. However, the same analysis carried out with the infectivity rate shows no significant difference according to the period and the locality. In addition, the number of infective bites per man per month is higher in August and October, and the climatic parameters that have mainly favoured aggression are wind speed, humidity, sunshine and temperature. Indeed, the peak of wind speed is concentrated around 1.2 km / h and in September (5 km / h) whereas the aggressiveness score of Anopheles in the region is greater than 10 infective bites per man a year. Conclusion Malaria transmission by Anopheles is influenced by climatic factors. The climate observed in the districts where IRS was extended in northern Benin has a real impact on Anopheles density and weakens current and future vector control strategies. This could lead to a series of modifications observed in anopheline populations just after IRS implementation ranging from a tendency to exophagy, from a decrease in the rate of blood-feeding to changes in the time, and change in aggressiveness. These phenomena most likely contribute to the sustainability of malaria transmission despite vector control measures. Keywords: Infectivity, aggression, Climate, Anopheles gambiae ( s.l. ), IRS, Benin.

Abstract Background The effectiveness of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) mainly relies on their physical integrity, an important indicator of the LLINs durability in households. The present study aims to assess this physical integrity for three widely used LLIN products: DawaPlus®2.0, PermaNet®2.0 (polyester) and DuraNet® (polyethylene), distributed in Benin during the mass campaign of 2014. Methods The study was conducted from October 2014 to June 2017 in three districts of Benin: Tori-Bossito, Toffo, and Ouesse. Nine hundred LLINs (a cohort of 300 LLINs per product) in use and found hanging on sleeping materials were selected and tagged. Every six months, the LLIN attrition and their physical condition was monitored. The holes were counted by category allowed to calculate the proportionate hole index (pHI) and classify the LLINs into "good ", "serviceable" or "torn" categories. Factors associated with loss of integrity have also been identified following World Health Organization Guidelines. Results After 30 months of use, 55.9% (n= 503; 95% CI: 52.6-59.2) of the LLINs were lost. Attritions due to physical damage were similar between the LLIN products and were respectively 28.3% for PermaNet® 2.0, 29.7% for DawaPlus® 2.0, and 31% for DuraNet® (p˃0.05). The mean pHI was significantly higher for DuraNet® LLINs (pHI= 1431) than DawaPlus® 2.0 (pHI =366) and PermaNet® 2.0 (pHI =321) (

Background: The purpose of this report is to provide information on Culicidae diversity; biting behavior and spatio-seasonal variation of abundance of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Culex quinquefasciatus in rural and urban settings of the Alibori and Donga regions, Northern Benin, where an indoor residual spraying (IRS) campaign to control malaria is planned. Methods: Both human landing catches, associated with pyrethrum spray catches were used to monitor the mosquito populations in 12 sites with 1 urban and 1 rural located in each of the 6 districts randomly selected in the two targeted regions. After morphological identification of all mosquito specimens, biting behavior and density of An. gambiae s.l. and Cx quinquefasciatus were studied. PCR was also performed on An. gambiae s.l., to identify sibling species and its seasonal variation. Results: A total of 10,367 mosquitoes were captured, related to 14 species of the genera, Anopheles, Aedes, Culex and Mansonia. Of the total species collection, 40.39% were An. gambiae s.l. and 56.85% were Cx. quinquefasciatus. An. gambiae s.l. was more abundant in Donga (2521 specimens) compared with Alibori (1666 specimens). The opposite trend was observed with Cx. quinquefasciatus (2162 specimens in Donga against 4028 in Alibori). An. gambiae s.l. was predominant and displayed a higher blood feeding rate in rural areas, whereas Cx. quinquefasciatus was in majority in urban areas. An. gambiae s.l. was more endophagic, whereas Cx. quinquefasciatus showed similar indoor and outdoor biting behavior. An. gambiae s.l. was composed of An. coluzzii found in majority in the drought, and An. gambiae, which was predominant in the rainy season. Conclusion: The predominance of the malaria vector, An. gambiae s.l. and their higher blood feeding rate and their significantly high endophagy in rural areas indicate that these areas should be primarily targeted with the IRS operations to have a substantial impact on malaria transmission. Endophagy, characteristic of An. gambiae s.l. in our study area, suggests that IRS will have a positive impact on vector control if implemented 1 week before June that is the onset of the rainy season.

Background This study aims to provide baseline data on the resistance status to insecticides, the frequency of mechanisms involved and the impact of the association with the synergist piperonyl butoxide (PBO) on resistant Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) populations in two regions of northern Benin, prior to an indoor residual spraying campaign and introduction of next generation long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) incorporating PBO. Methods Adult Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) originating from larvae collected in two study regions (Alibori within the Kandi-Gogounou-Segbana districts and Donga within the Djougou-Copargo-Ouake districts) were tested with impregnated papers (bendiocarb 0.1%, pirimiphos-methyl 0.25%, permethrin 0.75% and deltamethrin 0.05%). The synergist PBO was used to check for the involvement of detoxification enzymes in pyrethroid resistant populations. Molecular analyses were performed for the identification of species within the Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) complex and kdr L1014F and G119S Ace-1 mutations. Biochemical assays assessed the activity of detoxification enzymes. Results Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) was resistant to pyrethroids, with a mortality range of 25–83% with deltamethrin and 6–55% with permethrin. A significant increase in mortality was observed after pre-exposure to PBO for both deltamethrin (63–99%) and permethrin (56–99%). With bendiocarb, An. gambiae (s.l.) were susceptible in Kandi (99% mortality), with possible resistance (92–95%) recorded in Djougou, Copargo, Gogounou, Ouake and Segbana. All study populations were fully susceptible to pirimiphos-methyl. The frequencies of resistant mutations varied according to species and sites: 0.67–0.88 for L1014F kdr and 0–0.06 for G119S Ace-1. Three study locations (Djougou, Gogounou and Kandi) showed high oxidase activity and four sites (Djougou, Ouake, Copargo and Kandi) showed elevated esterase activity. Conclusions This study confirms resistance to pyrethroids and suggests emerging bendiocarb resistance in An. gambiae (s.l.) populations in northern Benin. However, recovery of susceptibility to pyrethroids after PBO exposure, and susceptibility to organophosphates in the An. gambiae (s.l.) populations indicate that next generation LLINs incorporating PBO synergist combined with an indoor residual spraying (IRS) campaign with organophosphate insecticides may be regarded as alternative control tools.

Background The main goal of this study was to assess the blood feeding behaviour and the contribution Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae, 2 sibling species of An. gambiae sensu stricto. present and living in sympatry in 2 regions of northern Benin targeted for indoor residual spraying (IRS). Methods The study was carried out in 6 districts of 2 regions of Benin (Alibori and Donga). Human landing catches (HLC) performed inside and outside of the households and pyrethrum spray captures (PSC) carried out in bedrooms were used to sample vector populations (An. gambiae and An. coluzzii). Collected mosquitoes were analysed to estimate the human biting rate indoors and outdoors, the circumsporozoite antigen positivity, and the anthropophagic index using ELISA methodology. Polymerase chain reaction was used to estimate the frequency of the knockdown resistance (kdr) L1014F and the ace-1 mutations, 2 markers associated respectively with pyrethroids and carbamate/organophosphate insecticide resistance. Results A higher blood feeding rate was observed in An. gambiae compared to An. coluzzii as well as, a non-pronounced outdoor biting behavior in both species. The latter showed similar anthropophagic and sporozoite rates. However the analysis indicates a seasonal difference in the contribution of each species to malaria transmission associated with shifts in resting behaviour. Anopheles coluzzii females accounted for most of the detected infections: 86% in Alibori and 79% in Donga, during the dry season versus 14.4% and 21.2%, respectively for An. gambiae during the same period. This relationship was reversed in Donga during the rainy season (66% for An. gambiae against 34% for An. coluzzii). Results also indicated lower frequencies of kdr L1014F and ace-1 in An. coluzzii versus An. gambiae. Conclusion Despite similarity in some parameters related to malaria transmission in both surveyed species, An. coluzzii is potentially a more important malaria vector because of high density in the region. It is also characterized by lower frequencies of the ace-1 mutation than is An. gambiae. The ongoing use of pirimiphos methyl (organophosphate) for IRS should continue to show a good impact in Alibori and Donga because of the very low level of the ace-1 mutation in both species.

Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are an essential tool in the fight against malaria. Physical integrity, durability and bio-effectiveness are key variables in the effectiveness of LLINs. The objective of this study was to identify the main factors affecting the survival of three brands of LLINs with different physical characteristics and to assess their bio-effectiveness. A cohort consisting of 1500 LLINs (500 of each) of the brands: DawaPlus®2.0 (polyester, 150 denier, 40 g/m2 fabric weight), PermaNet®2.0 and Yorkool® (polyester, 75 denier, alternating knit pattern with 85 g/m2 fabric weight) was monitored every 6 months in the communes of Ketou, Dogbo and Djougou (from October 2017 to September 2019) based on attrition and integrity measures and median survival in years. We also determined bio-efficacy using the WHO cone test. The physical presence rate was 26.4%, 21.4% and 48.6% respectively for DawaPlus®2.0, PermaNet®2.0 and Yorkool®. The main cause of loss of the three LLINs was displacement, 43.6% (in rural areas) versus 43.2% (in urban areas) with no significant difference (p ˃ 0.05). The median proportional hole index (pHI) ranged from 578 (IQR: 219-843) at 6 months to 196 (IQR: 46-524.5). After 24 months of use, 86.1% were in good condition (0≤pHI

Background: Climate variability influence the diversity and abundance of malaria vectors and thereby on malaria transmission dynamics. Examine its effect on Anopheles parameters involved in transmission may predict the potential malaria hotspot as a right target for its control intervention strategies. Here, we investigated the influence of meteorological parameters on the aggressiveness and infectivity of Anopheles in two health districts zones where IRS has been extended in Northern Benin. Mosquito collections were carried out using human landing catches to evaluate rates of aggression and infectivity in twelve villages. Concomitantly, meteorological data from synoptic stations of Benin and neighbouring countries were collected in 2016-2017. The spatial distribution of infective bites of An. gambiae is characterized by an intense aggression in the rural villages of the study area. Analysis of variances showed significant HBR difference according to the period but not according to the locality. However, the same analysis carried out with the infectivity rate shows no significant difference according to the period and the locality. In addition, the number of infective bites per man per month is higher in August and October, and the climatic parameters that have mainly favoured aggression are wind speed, humidity, sunshine and temperature. Indeed, the peak of wind speed is concentrated around 1.2 km / h and in September (5 km / h) whereas the aggressiveness score of Anopheles in the region is greater than 10 infective bites per man a year. Malaria transmission by Anopheles is influenced by climatic factors. The climate observed in the districts where IRS was extended in northern Benin has a real impact on Anopheles density and weakens current and future vector control strategies. This could lead to a series of modifications observed in anopheline populations just after IRS implementation ranging from a tendency to exophagy, from a decrease in the rate of blood-feeding to changes in the time, and change in aggressiveness. These phenomena most likely contribute to the sustainability of malaria transmission despite vector control measures.