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Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) is a promising novel combustion technology involving inherent separation of carbon dioxide with minimum energy penalty. An oxygen carrier is employed to continuously transfer oxygen from the air reactor to the fuel reactor where the oxygen is delivered to the fuel. Consequently, direct contact between the air and fuel is prevented. The resulting flue gas is CO2-rich, without N2 dilution. The reduced oxygen carrier is then transported back to the air reactor for re-oxidation purposes, hence forming a chemical loop. Various CLC configurations have already been developed and tested on laboratory scales. However, more investigations are required to achieve feasible CLC processes. Among the different points to address, control of the solid circulation rate between the two reactors is of the highest importance regarding its effect on achievement of an appropriate oxygen transfer rate and solid oxidation degrees. Moreover, minimization of gas leakage between the fuel and air reactors is another important issue to be considered. A novel CLC configuration is proposed where reactions are carried out in two interconnected bubbling fluidized beds. Solid circulation rate control is achieved independently of gas flow rate in the reactors through use of pneumatic non-mechanical valves (L-valves). Moreover, loopseals are employed to minimize gas leakage while transferring solids. Experimental results from operation of a 10 kWth equivalent cold prototype are presented in this paper. The effect of operating variables on the solid circulation rate, gas leakage between the two beds and the pressure balance on all of the process elements is studied. The results demonstrate stable solid circulation with efficient control of the solid flow rate and effective gas tightness of the system. La combustion en boucle chimique (CLC) est une nouvelle technologie prometteuse qui implique la separation inherente du dioxyde de carbone avec une perte minimale d’energie. Un transporteur d’oxygene est utilise pour le transfert de l’oxygene en continu du “reacteur air” vers le “reacteur fioul” ou l’oxygene est apporte au combustible. Ainsi, le contact direct entre l’air et le combustible est evite. Le gaz resultant est riche en CO2 et n’est pas dilue avec de l’azote. Le transporteur d’oxygene reduit est ensuite transporte vers le reacteur air afin d’etre re-oxyde, formant ainsi une boucle chimique. Diverses configurations CLC ont deja ete developpees et testees a l’echelle laboratoire. Cependant, des travaux de recherche supplementaires sont necessaires pour garantir la faisabilite du procede. Parmi les differents points a aborder, le controle du debit de circulation du solide entre les deux reacteurs est de la plus haute importance, notamment en ce qui concerne son impact sur l’apport en oxygene et le degre d’oxydation du solide. Aussi la reduction des fuites de gaz entre le reacteur fioul et le reacteur air est un autre point important a prendre en consideration. Dans cette etude, une nouvelle configuration de CLC est proposee ou les reactions sont effectuees dans deux lits fluidises bouillonnants interconnectes. Le controle du debit de circulation du solide est realise independamment du debit de gaz de fluidisation des reacteurs en utilisant des vannes pneumatiques non-mecaniques. Les siphons sont egalement employes pour reduire au mieux les fuites de gaz lors du transfert solide. Les resultats experimentaux obtenus dans une maquette froide equivalente a un pilote de 10 kWth sont presentes dans ce travail. L’impact des parametres operatoires sur le taux de circulation du solide, des fuites de gaz entre les deux lits et l’equilibre des pressions sur l’ensemble des elements du systeme est etudie. Une circulation stable du solide a ete obtenue grace a un controle maitrise du debit du solide et une etancheite efficace du systeme.

CLC is a new promising combustion process for CO2 capture with less or even no energy penalty compared to other processes. Up to now, most of the work performed on CLC was conducted with gaseous or solid fuels, using methane and coal and/or pet coke. Liquid fuels such as heavy fuels resulting from oil distillation or conversion may also be interesting feedstocks to consider. However, liquid fuels are challenging feedstock to deal with in fluidized beds. The objective of the present work is therefore to investigate the feasibility of liquid feed injection and contact with oxygen carrier in CLC conditions in order to conduct partial or complete combustion of hydrocarbons. A batch experimental fluidized bed set-up was developed to contact alternatively oxygen carrier with liquid fuels or air. The 20 mm i.d. fluidized bed reactor was filled up with 45 g of NiAl0.44O1.67 and pulses of 1-2 g of liquid were injected in the bed at high temperatures up to 950˚C. Different feedstocks have been injected, from dodecane to heavy fuel oils No.2. Results show that, during the reduction period, it is possible to convert all the fuel injected and there is no coke remaining on particles at the end of the reduction step. Depending upon oxygen available in the bed, either full combustion or partial combustion can be achieved. Similar results were found with different liquid feeds, despite their different composition and properties. Le CLC est un nouveau concept prometteur appliqué à la combustion qui permet le captage de CO en minimisant la pénalité énergétique liée au captage. Jusqu’à présent, l’essentiel des travaux de recherche dans le domaine du CLC concerne les charges gazeuses (méthane) et solides (charbon et coke). Les charges liquides, et particulièrement les résidus pétroliers, sont des charges également intéressantes à considérer a priori. La mise en oeuvre de ces charges en lit fluidisé est cependant délicate. L’objet de ce travail est d’étudier la faisabilité de la combustion partielle ou totale des charges liquides dans les conditions du CLC au contact d’un matériau porteur d’oxygène. Un petit réacteur en lit fluidisé opérant en batch a été développé pour permettre alternativement le contact du matériau porteur d’oxygène avec une charge liquide ou de l’air. Le réacteur de 20 mm de diamètre est rempli de 45 g de particules de NiAl0.44O1.67. Environ 1-2 g de charge liquide est injecté par pulse dans le lit à des températures allant jusqu’à 950˚C. Différentes charges liquides ont été étudiées, du dodécane au fioul lourd n˚2. Les résultats montrent que pendant la période de réduction du matériau porteur d’oxygène, il est possible de convertir tous les hydrocarbures injectés. À l’issue de cette phase, il ne subsiste pas de dépôt de coke à la surface des particules. En fonction de la quantité d’oxygène disponible dans le lit, on effectue une combustion totale ou partielle des hydrocarbures injectés. Des résultats similaires sont obtenus pour les différents hydrocarbures testés, malgré leurs propriétés a priori très différentes.

The process development by IFP Energies nouvelles (IFPEN)/ENI/Axens of a Fischer-Tropsch process is described. This development is based on upstream process studies to choose the process scheme, reactor technology and operating conditions, and downstream to summarize all development work in a process guide. A large amount of work was devoted to the catalyst performances on one hand and the scale-up of the slurry bubble reactor with dedicated complementary tools on the other hand. Finally, an original approach was implemented to validate both the process and catalyst on an industrial scale by combining a 20 bpd unit in ENI’s Sannazzaro refinery, with cold mock-ups equivalent to 20 and 1 000 bpd at IFPEN and a special “Large Validation Tool” (LVT) which reproduces the combined effect of chemical reaction condition stress and mechanical stress equivalent to a 15 000 bpd industrial unit. Dedicated analytical techniques and a dedicated model were developed to simulate the whole process (reactor and separation train), integrating a high level of complexity and phenomena coupling to scale-up the process in a robust reliable base on an industrial scale.

A general theme of technology education posits that participation in technology studies will result in outcomes and benefits for the wider society. Such an expectation is reflected in the New Zealand Technology Curriculum document where the aim of technology education includes enabling students "to achieve technological literacy through the development of: understanding and awareness of the relationship between technology and society." Although technology studies has developed as a distinct curriculum area in many countries, it is important to recognize that technology is not recognized as such by many of those in decision-making roles within various societies. Research into the views of legal decision makers concerning science and scientific evidence has revealed a very wide spectrum of understanding and expectations of expert witnesses. Judges not only interpret expert technical opinion evidence differently from those within the expert community, they also interpret that evidence differently from each other. Regardless of the type of legal system or social structure within a community, legal decision making will involve inquiry and an increasing reliance on expert opinion. Thus, it is crucial that in any program of technology education, lay perceptions and misconceptions are anticipated and accommodated so that technologists are taught how to effectively communicate their work and the importance of that communication as an aspect of the integration of technology into society. This article presents a research with the New Zealand environment court in which eight judges and 13 of the 17 commissioners were interviewed to canvass their views regarding the role of science and scientific witnesses. Interview results and implications for technology education are presented. (Contains 2 footnotes.)