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Humans regularly solve complex problems in cooperative teams. A wide range of mechanisms have been identified that improve the quality of solutions achieved by those teams on reaching consensus. We argue that many of these mechanisms work via increasing the transient diversity of solutions while the group attempts to reach a consensus. These mechanisms can operate at the level of individual psychology (e.g., behavioral inertia), interpersonal communication (e.g., transmission noise), or group structure (e.g., sparse social networks). Transient diversity can be increased by widening the search space of possible solutions or by slowing the diffusion of information and delaying consensus. All of these mechanisms increase the quality of the solution at the cost of increased time to reach it. We review specific mechanisms that facilitate transient diversity and synthesize evidence from both empirical studies and diverse formal models-including multiarmed bandits, NK landscapes, cumulative-innovation models, and evolutionary-transmission models. Apparent exceptions to this principle occur primarily when problems are sufficiently simple that they can be solved by mere trial and error or when the incentives of team members are insufficiently aligned. This work has implications for our understanding of collective intelligence, problem solving, innovation, and cumulative cultural evolution.

In the past decade, various recommendations have been published to enhance the methodological rigor and publication standards in psychological science. However, adhering to these recommendations may have limited impact on the reproducibility of causal effects as long as psychological phenomena continue to be viewed as decomposable into separate and additive statistical structures of causal relationships. In this article, we show that (a) psychological phenomena are patterns emerging from nondecomposable and nonisolable complex processes that obey idiosyncratic nonlinear dynamics, (b) these processual features jeopardize the chances of standard reproducibility of statistical results, and (c) these features call on researchers to reconsider what can and should be reproduced, that is, the psychological processes per se, and the signatures of their complexity and dynamics. Accordingly, we argue for a greater consideration of process causality of psychological phenomena reflected by key properties of complex dynamical systems (CDSs). This implies developing and testing formal models of psychological dynamics, which can be implemented by computer simulation. The scope of the CDS paradigm and its convergences with other paradigms are discussed regarding the reproducibility issue. Ironically, the CDS approach could account for both reproducibility and nonreproducibility of the statistical effects usually sought in mainstream psychological science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Value capture theory, or the application of cooperative game theory to theory and pedagogy in strategic management, has been growing in influence, but its potential for empirical research is underexploited. I briefly review value capture theory and then offer thoughts on how it may motivate and inform empirical research that both tests specific elements of value capture theory and uses insights and econometric models based on value capture theory to deepen our understanding of many topics of interest to strategy scholars and practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article revisits the conventional distinction in political science between 'positive' and 'normative' political theory, particularly the belief that formal and mathematical methods are only pertinent to positive political theory. We argue that formal models are equally valuable in normative political theory for three reasons: they can make thought experiments more rigorous, they can demonstrate the consistency of normative principles, and they can provide insights into the practical workings of novel institutional arrangements in the absence of empirical data. The integration of formal models into normative political theory presents challenges, including the development of criteria for evaluating these models and potential shifts in research focus. Integration can also strengthen political theory's tenuous role in the political science discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Taiwan Law Review is the property of Angle Publishing Co., Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Ruling elites commonly concede institutional reforms such as expanding the franchise. In existing models, sharing power in this manner enables ruling elites to credibly commit to perpetual redistribution. In 'Power Sharing with Weak Institutions,' Powell (2024) explains why the commitment problem runs deeper: When institutions are weak, elites are likely to block the implementation of promised institutional concessions. I provide new insights into three foundational premises of Powell (2024) and related models. First, I identify a necessary condition for a common result: Ruling elites always minimize permanent power-sharing concessions vis-à-vis temporary concessions, subject to preventing revolt. However, unless reforming institutions is somehow costly, these two tools are perfect substitutes. Second, I discuss how to conceptualize institutional strength within this class of models. Third, in weak institutional environments, I suggest how scholars can model credible commitments to share power or democratize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans regularly solve complex problems in cooperative teams. A wide range of mechanisms have been identified that improve the quality of solutions achieved by those teams on reaching consensus. We argue that many of these mechanisms work via increasing the transient diversity of solutions while the group attempts to reach a consensus. These mechanisms can operate at the level of individual psychology (e.g., behavioral inertia), interpersonal communication (e.g., transmission noise), or group structure (e.g., sparse social networks). Transient diversity can be increased by widening the search space of possible solutions or by slowing the diffusion of information and delaying consensus. All of these mechanisms increase the quality of the solution at the cost of increased time to reach it. We review specific mechanisms that facilitate transient diversity and synthesize evidence from both empirical studies and diverse formal models—including multiarmed bandits, NK landscapes, cumulative-innovation models, and evolutionary-transmission models. Apparent exceptions to this principle occur primarily when problems are sufficiently simple that they can be solved by mere trial and error or when the incentives of team members are insufficiently aligned. This work has implications for our understanding of collective intelligence, problem solving, innovation, and cumulative cultural evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social psychologists attempt to explain how we interact by appealing to basic principles of how we think. To make good on this ambition, they are increasingly relying on an interconnected set of formal tools that model inference, attribution, value-guided decision making, and multi-agent interactions. By reviewing progress in each of these areas and highlighting the connections between them, we can better appreciate the structure of social thought and behavior, while also coming to understand when, why, and how formal tools can be useful for social psychologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of global and high-tech development, cultural fields are often overlooked during these transitions. Therefore, it is essential to pay close attention to their inclusion. Cultural-historical heritage, which has undergone centuries of changes, deserves to be introduced into the technological world and made as accessible as possible to society, without territorial or border restrictions. Digitizing a part of this heritage, including folklore, can make it high-tech while preserving its character, peculiarity, and identity. This article examines the digitalization of Bulgarian cultural and historical heritage. It explores existing international standards for presenting cultural heritage and proposes a formalism for an adequate presentation of knowledge in the field of Bulgarian folklore. This article presents the first version of a model for the formal description of objects from Bulgarian folklore. We provide examples of the formal presentation of objects from Bulgarian folklore and their corresponding computer implementation.

How does government oversight of the military affect the occurrence of wartime sexual violence? This paper highlights the role of civil-military relations and state capacity in the occurrence of sexual violence. Building on research that examines wartime sexual violence in the principal-agent framework, we propose a game-theoretic model in which the military deploys wartime sexual violence based on its expectation of government oversight. We describe an equilibrium where monitoring is an informative signal of the government's capacity to carry out the punishment. The government monitors strategically and may choose to remain "strategically ignorant" of the military's conduct. Since government oversight is an informative signal of punishment, the military abstains from wartime sexual violence when oversight is high. We examine the empirical implications of the model using data on sexual violence, military oversight, and state capacity and find support for the hypotheses generated by the model. ¿Cuál es el efecto que tiene la supervisión por parte del Gobierno a las fuerzas armadas sobre la aparición de violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra? Este artículo destaca el papel de las relaciones cívico-militares y de la capacidad del Estado en la aparición de violencia sexual. Proponemos, sobre la base de la investigación que estudia la violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra dentro del marco de la relación principal-agente, un modelo de teoría de juegos en el que las fuerzas armadas despliegan la violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra en función de sus expectativas de supervisión gubernamental. Describimos un equilibrio en el que esta supervisión es una señal informativa de la capacidad del Gobierno para llevar a cabo sanciones. El Gobierno realiza la supervisión de manera estratégica y puede optar por permanecer «estratégicamente ignorante» de la conducta de las fuerzas armadas. Dado que la supervisión gubernamental es una señal informativa de la capacidad del Estado, las fuerzas armadas se abstienen de llevar a cabo violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra cuando la supervisión es alta. Examinamos las implicaciones empíricas del modelo utilizando datos sobre violencia sexual, supervisión militar y capacidad estatal y encontramos apoyo para las hipótesis generadas por el modelo. Quels sont les effets de la surveillance de l'armée par le gouvernement sur la survenance de violences sexuelles en temps de guerre ? Cet article met en évidence le rôle des relations entre civils et militaires et de la capacité de l'État dans la survenance de violences sexuelles. En nous fondant sur la recherche sur les violences sexuelles en temps de guerre dans le cadre des relations mandant-mandataire, nous proposons un modèle basé sur la théorie des jeux au sein duquel les actes de violence sexuelle du corps militaire en temps de guerre dépendent du degré de surveillance gouvernementale anticipé. Nous décrivons la mise en place d'un équilibre par la surveillance du gouvernement qui indique sa capacité à infliger des sanctions. La surveillance du gouvernement revêt un caractère stratégique, car il peut choisir de maintenir « une ignorance stratégique » du comportement des militaires. Comme la surveillance du gouvernement constitue un indicateur de la capacité de l'État, l'armée s'abstient de toute violence sexuelle en temps de guerre quand la surveillance est élevée. Nous analysons les implications empiriques du modèle à l'aide de données sur les violences sexuelles, la surveillance militaire et la capacité de l'État. Nos conclusions confirment les hypothèses générées par le modèle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Let G be a split connected reductive group scheme over the ring of integers o of a finite extension L/Qp and λ∈X(T) an algebraic character of a split maximal torus T∈G. Let us also consider Xrig the rigid analytic flag variety of G and G=G(L). In the first part of this paper, we introduce a family of λ-twisted differential operators on a formal model Y of Xrig. We compute their global sections and we prove coherence together with several cohomological properties. In the second part, we define the category of coadmissible G-equivariant arithmetic D(λ)-modules over the family of formal models of the rigid flag variety Xrig. We show that if λ is such that λ+ρ is dominant and regular (ρ being the Weyl character), then the preceding category is anti-equivalent to the category of admissible locally analytic G-representations, with central character λ. In particular, we generalize the main results from a paper by Huyghe, Patel, Schmidt and Strauch (2019) for algebraic characters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an important subset of armed conflicts, there is a large disparity between the belligerents' capabilities. Although the outcomes of such wars cannot be predicted with absolute certainty, the chances that a weak state will triumph are often so low that private information is not a satisfying explanation for conflict. Under which circumstances, then, does the disadvantaged side give in rather than attempting to fight? And what explains variation in effort levels by strong states? I present a model of an environment in which a strong state faces political pressure to replace the losing government following a costly war. I show that there is a non-monotonic relationship between the effort the winning state devotes to the war and the probability that the losing state surrenders – when war effort is low, the weaker state fights because it has a decent chance of winning; when it is high, the weak state fights because it recognizes that it will be replaced upon surrender. Further results are derived to explain the domestic political foundations of variation in strong states' investments in lopsided conflicts. The results help rationalize a number of historical instances of lopsided conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The grammatical paradigm used to be a model for entire areas of cognitive science. Its primary tenet was that theories are axiomatic‐like systems. A secondary tenet was that their predictions should be tested quickly and in great detail with introspective judgments. While the grammatical paradigm now often seems passé, we argue that in fact it continues to be as efficient as ever. Formal models are essential because they are explicit, highly predictive, and typically modular. They make numerous critical predictions, which must be tested efficiently; introspective judgments do just this. We further argue that the grammatical paradigm continues to be fruitful. Within linguistics, implicature theory is a recent example, with a combination of formal explicitness, modularity, and interaction with experimental work. Beyond traditional linguistics, the grammatical paradigm has proven fruitful in the study of gestures and emojis; literature ("Free Indirect Discourse"); picture semantics and comics; music and dance cognition; and even reasoning and concepts. We argue, however, that the grammatical paradigm must be adapted to contemporary cognitive science. Computational methods are essential to derive quantitative predictions from formal models (Bayesian pragmatics is an example). And data collection techniques offer an ever richer continuum of options, from introspective judgments to large‐scale experiments, which makes it possible to optimize the cost/benefit ratio of the empirical methods that are chosen to test theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Model‐based testing (MBT) relies on models of the system's behaviour to generate abstract tests. Testers can reuse formal models using MBT to increase confidence in critical systems (e.g., medical and avionic systems). In this article, we investigate the current abstract test generation approaches for CPN to provide insights for testers who need to select a suitable one when applying the MBT using CPN. We conduct a systematic literature review to investigate the existing abstract test generation approaches designed for CPN. Subsequently, focusing on specific implementations and advantages/disadvantages, we experiment with formal models of medical systems during our empirical analysis to improve the discussion on existing abstract test generation approaches for CPN. Our study shows that CPN provides reliable tests quickly, depending on the abstract test generation approach applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychometrics builds on the fundamental premise that psychological attributes are unobservable and need to be inferred from observable behavior. Consequently, psychometric procedures consist primarily in applying latent variable modeling, which statistically relates latent variables to manifest variables. However, latent variable modeling falls short of providing a theoretically sound definition of psychological attributes. Whereas in a pragmatic interpretation of latent variable modeling latent variables cannot represent psychological attributes at all, a realist interpretation of latent variable modeling implies that latent variables are empty placeholders for unknown attributes. The authors argue that psychological attributes can only be identified if they are defined within the context of substantive formal theory. Building on the structuralist view of scientific theories, they show that any successful application of such a theory necessarily produces specific values for the theoretical terms that are defined within the theory. Therefore, substantive formal theory is both necessary and sufficient for psychological measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The challenges of current software-intensive systems, large-scale information and computing systems environments, which are highly dynamic, heterogeneous, and unpredictable, have motivated the development of techniques that enhance these systems with autonomous behaviors. Even though different concerns about these systems have been deeply studied, their design is still considerably more challenging than traditional ones. Self-healing is one of the main features that characterize autonomic computing systems. Failure detection, recovery strategies, and reliability are of paramount importance to ensure continuous operation and correct functioning even in the presence of a given maximum amount of faulty components. Most existing research and implementations focus on architecture-specific solutions to introduce self-healing behaviors. This implies that users must tailor their software by taking into account architecture-specific fault tolerance features, which requires too much effort from developers and users. This paper proposes a distributed formal model for the specification, verification, and analysis of self-healing behaviors in autonomous systems, from failure-detection to self-recovery. Such a high-level model allows users to specify and apply the desired type of failure detection and recovery without requiring any knowledge about its implementation. Our model allows not only formal verification of different properties but also performance evaluation. We provide the verification of qualitative properties using state-space exploration tools, and quantitative properties are also validated through statistical model-checking. All these properties are preserved in actual implementation by ensuring that the deployed code is consistent with the validated model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. It is proposed to develop agent-based network metacomputer systems and applications based on logical methods and related conceptual graphical models, which allows combining imperative and declarative methods when designing the functional architecture and software of a metacomputer. Formalized specifications for creating agent-based network applications based on conceptual and logical models of artificial intelligence are proposed. The term “metacomputer” is chosen to denote the network environment in which the action script is deployed. Another name is a cloudnetwork application, in principle it means the same thing, but it differs in the additional consideration of terminology from the field of modern network technologies in an explicit form. In connection with the growing importance of global computer networks in science and education, the problem of creating large-scale applications is relevant. A functional organization of metacomputer agent-based network distributed computing is proposed, which implements the main structures of distributed programming, where the network is actually considered as a computer with distributed program control based on the messagedriven computing paradigm, and not as a means of implementing the simple client-server or master-slave applications. The aim of the work is to increase the level of parallelism in data processing in metacomputer systems by organizing the pipeline movement of messages over the network. Materials and methods. Conceptual models, logical-algebraic operating models, logical Petri nets are used as the main methods. Results. Conceptual graphs of distributed algorithms and logical-algebraic operational expressions suitable for use as directly executable specifications are proposed, a method is developed for moving from conceptual graphs to executable specifications that define the functional architecture of a metacomputer. Simulation models for distributed algorithms have been developed. Conclusions. The practical implementation of the above concepts and models will increase the level of parallelism in the operation of agent-based virtual metacomputer systems due to the pipeline organization of message passing.

Cloud computing is a new technology, providing different online resources and services to users. Load balancing has become an interesting research area in this field. A few existing scheduling algorithms can maintain load balancing and provide better strategies through efficient job scheduling and resource allocation techniques as well. In order to gain maximum profits with optimized load balancing algorithms, it is necessary to guarantee a service level along dimensions such as performance, availability and reliability. In this work, we propose a Model-based approach to study and analyze centralized and distributed dynamic load balancing protocols in the Cloud. The formal verification of different properties of the studied protocols has been performed automatically and a performance analysis allowing their comparison is also provided. In this paper, we show how aspects of performance, resource consumption, and reliability of the Cloud can be formally modeled, verified and analyzed using a component-based architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

O's lateral position HT ht has to be determined by a possibly imprecise sensor providing an estimate HT ht for HT ht . Thus, HT ht is defined by HT ht . [Extracted from the article]

Many social phenomena do not result solely from intentional actions by isolated individuals, but rather emerge as the result of repeated interactions among multiple individuals over time. However, such phenomena are often poorly captured by traditional empirical techniques. Moreover, complex adaptive systems are insufficiently described by verbal models. In this paper, we discuss how organizational psychologists and group dynamics researchers may benefit from the adoption of formal modeling, particularly agent-based modeling, for developing and testing richer theories. Agent-based modeling is well suited to capture multilevel dynamic processes and offers superior precision to verbal models. As an example, we present a model of social identity dynamics used to test the predictions of Brewer’s (1991) optimal distinctiveness theory, and discuss how the model extends the theory and produces novel research questions. We close with a general discussion on theory development using agent-based models.

While prior work on coalition theories focuses either solely on office or on policy motivations of parties, more elaborate theories combine both types of motivation. Said combination makes them much more appropriate for explaining coalition formation but also more complex. One possibility to make these models broadly applicable are coalition tools. Since existing tools do not incorporate advances from such theories, we present a new coalition tool called Coalizer which takes both office and policy motivations into account and reflects the state of coalition theory. Among others, Coalizer includes features like the computation of policy utility values basing on party positions (supporting different estimation modes), the combination of office and policy utility values, and the indication of utility maximizing strategies for parties. In this paper, we present our coalition tool and illustrate its functionality with the example of the German federal elections in 2017. Coalizer is available online at [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toddlers vary widely in the rate at which they develop vocabulary. This variation predicts later language development and school success at the group level; however, we cannot determine which children with slower vocabulary development in the second year will continue to have difficulty. In this article, I argue that this is because we lack theoretical understanding of how multiple processes operate as a system to create individual children's pathways to word learning. I discuss the difficulties children face when learning even a single concrete noun, the multiple general cognitive processes that support word learning, and some evidence of rapid development in the second year. I present work toward a formal model of the word learning system and how this system changes over time. The long‐term goal of this work is to understand how individual children's strengths and weaknesses create unique vocabulary pathways, and to enable us to predict outcomes and identify effective interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional access controls have evolved from being static and coarse-grained to being dynamic and very fine-grained. However, a balance still must be struck: too little access inhibits usefulness, effectively creating a denial of service for people trying to do their jobs; and too much access invites breaches of security. "Break-the-glass" techniques and adaptive access control have previously been developed to address this issue. But gaps in these techniques still exist. We extend these techniques as follows: consider a system in which prohibitions fall into two classes. Core prohibitions prevent disaster, and are axiomatic to the system. Ancillary prohibitions, derived from core prohibitions, hinder the ability of an attacker to violate core prohibitions, but are not in and of themselves critical to the security of the system. We introduce optimistic access control, a framework in which core prohibitions are always enforced, and ancillary prohibitions are enforced only when a specific threshold is crossed. The threshold depends upon history, trust, and a variety of non-binary countermeasures. This control deals with many scenarios—including the insider threat and remote access with limited communication—that are extremely difficult to address or even characterize using current techniques. Therefore, these controls address certain gaps. Finally, we present a formal mapping to lattice models, and describe implementation ideas and issues of this method in practice.

In this collection, we retrace some of the historical development of the anthropological study of kinship and go back to the concepts and ideas that we, as anthropologists, had previously been circulating about kinship knowledge.  We address issues that have been raised about the study of kinship, the place of kinship in anthropological knowledge and what constitutes kinship on the basis of local knowledge.

In this article, we introduce a probabilistic verification algorithm for stochastic regular expressions over a probabilistic extension of the Action based Computation Tree Logic (ACTL*). The main results include a novel model checking algorithm and a semantics on the probabilistic action logic for stochastic regular expressions (SREs). Specific to our model checking algorithm is that SREs are defined via local probabilistic functions. Such functions are beneficial since they enable to verify properties locally for sub-components. This ability provides a flexibility to reuse the local results for the global verification of the system; hence, the framework can be used for iterative verification. We demonstrate how to model a system with an SRE and how to verify it with the probabilistic action based logic and present a preliminary performance evaluation with respect to the execution time of the reachability algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the connection between software contracts and smart contracts. Despite the assonance, these two terms denote quite different concepts: software contracts are logical properties of software components, while smart contracts are programs executed on blockchains. What is the relation between them? We answer this question by discussing how to integrate software contracts in the design of programming languages for smart contracts.

A method to find the minimized state machine cover of live and safe Petri nets (PNs) is proposed in this paper. It is required that a cover be obtained in some implementation methods of PN-based control algorithms and other applications such as data mining. Most of the known methods of its computation have at least exponential time and space complexity; this is true not only for the methods which guarantee a minimal cover is obtained but also for some methods of finding approximate solutions. The proposed algorithm is an approximation algorithm and has polynomial computational complexity. The experimental verification shows a very high efficiency of the presented technique. The proposed method is especially valuable in the case of large systems where a solution is obtained hundreds of times quicker than by other methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suicide is a leading cause of death worldwide and perhaps the most puzzling and devastating of all human behaviors. Suicide research has primarily been guided by verbal theories containing vague constructs and poorly specified relationships. We propose two fundamental changes required to move toward a mechanistic understanding of suicide. First, we must formalize theories of suicide, expressing them as mathematical or computational models. Second, we must conduct rigorous descriptive research, prioritizing direct observation and precise measurement of suicidal thoughts and behaviors and of the factors posited to cause them. Together, theory formalization and rigorous descriptive research will facilitate abductive theory construction and strong theory testing, thereby improving the understanding and prevention of suicide and related behaviors. Due to scientific advances, there have been significant declines in many once-leading causes of death over the past 100 years, yet global suicide rates have remained fairly stable for decades. The lack of progress in understanding, predicting, and preventing suicide is due in part to the limitations of current scientific theories of suicide. After providing a brief history of suicide theories, we argue that these theories are limited due to two fundamental factors: (i) they are imprecise, comprising vaguely defined components and underspecified relationships among those components, precluding concrete theory predictions that could be tested; and (ii) there is a lack of rigorous descriptive research that is necessary to inform the generation, testing, and development of more precise theories. We provide several guiding principles to address these limitations, focusing on the need to formalize theories as mathematical and computational models and to collect rigorous and intensive descriptive research on key suicidal outcomes and the factors posited to give rise to those outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this commentary is to show how the use of formal models—both closed form and computational—can improve theory development and theory testing in organization theory. I also provide practical suggestions (aimed at PhD students and researchers considering developing a formal model) for dealing with challenges in developing and writing a formal modeling paper. By uncovering how formal models contribute to organization theory and presenting the constraints that formal modeling papers are subject to, this commentary can also help consumers of modeling papers to extract more value from this research method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turning verbal theories into formal models is an essential business of a mature science. Here I elaborate on taxonomies of models, provide ten lessons for translating a verbal theory into a formal model, and discuss the specific challenges involved in collaborations between modelers and non-modelers. It's a start. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]