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Facial reconstruction is the most frequently used method for human identification in forensic examinations. It is a complex and time-consuming technique and an actively growing field with a wide array of applications. The methods of forensic facial reconstruction are helpful in those cases where other methods of identification are not applicable. Identification of the dead is always a challenging task for forensic teams in cases involving terrorists' attacks and mass disasters where the corpses are fragmented, decomposed, and skeletonized. In such cases, only the skeletal remains and few other clues are available to establish the identity of a person. The progress of facial reconstruction was initiated in the nineteenth century, reconstructing the facial profiles of some famous and rich people. Various novel techniques for facial reconstruction have been devised in the recent past. We conducted literature search, using databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect for analyzing different methods developed and practiced till date for human facial reconstruction. We outline the brief history along with a discussion regarding the different methods of forensic facial reconstruction and their limitations. We also discuss future recommendations and preferences for further research in the field of forensic facial reconstruction and human identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Forensic odontology has contributed significantly in forensic investigations and involves various branches of dentistry including orthodontics. The current communication presents evidence-based perspective highlighting synergistic union of different specialties for Forensic Facial Approximation (FFA). It brings forth commonality in principles of anthropology, forensic science, anthropometry, anatomy, paleontology, forensic odontology, with orthodontics, used in FFA. Various attributes and skills of orthodontists’ aid in dental and skull profiling and the corresponding sex, age, and ethnicity-based soft tissue assessments for facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT), may aid a life-like appearance. They can assist hard tissue profiling by their expertise in growth of skeletal and soft tissue, along with the evolutionary trends in occlusion, and diet formulations. Their knowledge in identifying teeth patterns, dental/skeletal jaw relationships, cranial/facial indices, vertical/horizontal facial proportions, can help prepare skull for orientation and reconstruction. The dental, photographic, and radiographic records maintained by orthodontists and general dentists are instrumental in data retrieval, used in various software, clinical, or research areas. These can provide normative values for comparative analysis or facial recreation. The orthodontists can also assist anthropologists and forensic specialists in the virtual reconstructions due to their ease in using latest digital technologies including three-dimensional (3D) facial scan, stereo-photogrammetry, 3D printing, automated soft-tissue landmarks, growth, and age predictions. Thus, the current study established the commonality in concepts of various forensic disciplines with orthodontics, which can strengthen both forensic on-field facial approximations and hard/soft tissue research to further enhance the accuracy of contemporary digital software used in FFA.

Objective  The mandible has been used for sex determination and forensic identification due to its unique anatomy and morphology. Every part of the mandible is unique, including the shape and size of the temperomandibular joint, the ramus, the body and the symphysis region, and the inferior alveolar canal. In addition, the position and placement of the teeth within their sockets are unique for every individual. Sample Population  A study was conducted on 20 males and females to estimate sexual dimorphism using anthropometric measurements obtained by cone beam computed tomography images of the mandible of Karnataka and Kerala populations. Materials and Methods  The mean, standard deviation, and standard error along with the confidence interval of different measurements were documented. Various measurements between the sexes were compared using Student's t -test. Association between categorical variables was analyzed using the Chi-square test. A p -value < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. Data were analyzed using statistical SPSS software. Results  The p -value of mRBr L, GA L, and GA R among females was significantly higher in the Karnataka population when compared with that in the Kerala population. The Karnataka State population showed significantly higher values of RL R, BiGBr, and BiCBr among males, and the p -value of the Kerala population for GGL L and GGL R was significant and higher among the males. Conclusion  The data derived from the above study suggest that the mandibular anthropometric measurements used may be applied for forensic sex estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Bone remodelling of the cranium determines the enlargement of the maxillary sinus. The process involves the resorption of the internal walls of the maxillary sinus minutely exceeding the growth of maxilla. During this process, there is bone deposition taking place at the medial border of the nasal cavity, and simultaneous resorption of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. There are very few studies which depict the correlation of the growth of the maxillary sinus with that of changes in the dimensions of the nasal aperture. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to determine, compare and correlate the three- dimensional morphometric parameters of the maxillary sinus and nasal aperture in Karnataka and Kerala population, to utilize the data for the purpose of individual identification, sexual dimorphism or any other application in the field of forensic facial reconstruction and /or human identification. Materials and Methodology: This pilot study has been carried out by morphometric measurements between the Craniometric landmarks of the maxillary sinus and nasal aperture of 30 subjects, aged between 18 to 30 years. Results: Morphometric parameters of maxillary sinus and nasal aperture were seen to be statistically significant in few groups on comparision which can be applies for sexual dimorphism. Conclusion: Maxillary sinuses have been reported to stay intact even though the skull and other bones of the cranium may be severely disfigured in victims who are incinerated or during external trauma. These morphometric measurements of maxillary sinus like the width, the depth, and the height which aid to investigate the accuracy and reliability of maxillary sinuses can also be used for sex estimation. These dimensions can be correlated with the measurements of the nasal aperture and this will also give an insight into the development of the cranium. These measurements are also important anthropometric parameters for classifying the race and sex of the individual whose identity is unknown.

Forensic odontology has contributed significantly in forensic investigations and involves various branches of dentistry including orthodontics. The current communication presents evidence-based perspective highlighting synergistic union of different specialties for Forensic Facial Approximation (FFA). It brings forth commonality in principles of anthropology, forensic science, anthropometry, anatomy, paleontology, forensic odontology, with orthodontics, used in FFA. Various attributes and skills of orthodontists' aid in dental and skull profiling and the corresponding sex, age, and ethnicity-based soft tissue assessments for facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT), may aid a life-like appearance. They can assist hard tissue profiling by their expertise in growth of skeletal and soft tissue, along with the evolutionary trends in occlusion, and diet formulations. Their knowledge in identifying teeth patterns, dental/skeletal jaw relationships, cranial/facial indices, vertical/horizontal facial proportions, can help prepare skull for orientation and reconstruction. The dental, photographic, and radiographic records maintained by orthodontists and general dentists are instrumental in data retrieval, used in various software, clinical, or research areas. These can provide normative values for comparative analysis or facial recreation. The orthodontists can also assist anthropologists and forensic specialists in the virtual reconstructions due to their ease in using latest digital technologies including three-dimensional (3D) facial scan, stereo-photogrammetry, 3D printing, automated soft-tissue landmarks, growth, and age predictions. Thus, the current study established the commonality in concepts of various forensic disciplines with orthodontics, which can strengthen both forensic on-field facial approximations and hard/soft tissue research to further enhance the accuracy of contemporary digital software used in FFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facial reconstruction can be used to identify unknown human skeletal remains when other techniques be unsuccessful. Through this review, we try to assessment the different methods of facial reconstruction stated in literature. There are several techniques of doing facial reconstruction, which vary from two dimensional drawings to three-dimensional clay models. With the advancement in 3D technology, a rapid, efficient and cost-effective computerized 3D reconstruction method has been developed which has brought down the grade of mistake before come across. Recognition allows the involved administration activities to make a list of assumed victims. This list can then be pointed down and a positive identification may be given by the more conventional method of forensic field. Facial reconstruction allows visual identification by the individual's family and associates to become easy and more definite. And here cosmetic reconstruction also plays a best role in investigating the criminals and legal part. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The robust nature of teeth and their ability to resist destruction, make them indispensable evidence in cases where human identification by a scientific method is required. Forensic odontology is the branch of dentistry that combines knowledge of teeth and oral and maxillofacial region of a dentist with the legal system. Dental identification has proven to be a boon in disaster victim identification. Besides teeth, an odontologist can also help identify unknown domains from other features such as the palatal rugae, lip prints, frontal sinus, etc. Forensic Odontology can also assist in the biological profiling of human remains by sex determination, age assessment, racial profiling, and information about habits or pathologies from dental traits. Dental age estimation is a crucial part of the age estimation process in the medico-legal system. Research has shown that dental age estimation by studying mineralization and development of teeth in children and young adults can be fairly accurate and supplement skeletal age assessment. Biological profiling is required to be done for reconstructive identification by forensic facial reconstruction, especially in cold cases. Equipped with the expertise of dental structures, oral and maxillofacial region, overall skull anthropology, forensic odontology can contribute towards the identification of skeletonized, decomposed, or mutilated remains especially in cold cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facial reconstruction is an effective forensic technique that can help recreate a victim's facial appearance from the skull. It is typically used to assist law enforcement agencies to identify missing deceased persons. Reconstruction techniques are usually based on the relationship between the underlying hard tissues, such as bone structure, and soft tissues such as the facial muscles and facial features. Facial reconstruction can be a feasible alternative to identify the remains from a decomposed, mutilated, or skeletonised corpse. It is important to remember that although the outcomes are empirical in nature, the technique has been applied widely in many situations. Recent advancements in technology and computer-based techniques have increased the accuracy and validity of this forensic discipline. We consider the most commonly used facial reconstruction techniques in this paper, with a detailed description of manual 3D techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study presents a protocol for measurements in adults was adapted to obtain the children's data, • Additionally, presents new data for facial soft-tissue thickness in Brazilian Children, • Good reproducibility of the measurements in CBCT exams, • The proposed adaptation to the Deciduous M2 points is suitable for application. As an auxiliary method in the process of human identification, forensic facial approximation (FFA) is an important tool for identifying unknown human bodies whose remains do not present the necessary traceability to any antemortem data collection. Specific characteristics are necessary when addressing children aged between 6 and 10 years, who have little sexual differentiation and a mixed dentition. Due to the chronology of eruption of the permanent second molars in this population, it is not possible to measure facial soft-tissue thickness (FSTT) from specific landmarks such as supra and infra M2. The objective of this research was to report the method for measuring the average FSTT of 32 landmarks adapting the method for adults replacing the landmarks at the upper and lower second molars (Supra M2 and Infra M2) in children up to 10 years of age for a measurement using the deciduous second molars as reference. We found statistical differences for some points, considering the variables of age and sex, but with a maximum difference of 2 mm, which allows the use of a single FSTT table. The deciduous teeth can replace the reference of the thicknesses at the supra and infra M2 landmarks. In addition to the new FSTT data for children in Brazil, we concluded that the proposed adaptation to the deciduous M2 points can be applied to obtain soft-tissue data for 32 facial points. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human identification techniques have been a leading tool to hold perpetrators accountable, give families closure, and approximate faces on skulls. This project is a pilot study to critically examine three disciplines that fall under the human identification umbrella: forensic anthropology, forensic genetics, and forensic art. Current facial research in genetics focuses on data from living individuals, identifying specific single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that influence specific regions of the face. This study assesses the translation of these regions to craniometric dimensions (interlandmark distances) of the underlying skull itself. The goal of this project is to provide information regarding the correlation of craniometric measurements and SNPs, as well as to encourage interdisciplinary work within the forensic sciences. We examined a selection of candidate SNPs currently identified in the literature to examine correlations between interlandmark distances and these SNPs within the same individual. A series of 99 craniometric landmarks were collected from 17 documented skulls from the Texas State Donated Skeletal Collection using a three-dimensional Microscribe digitizer. Criteria for inclusion in this study included European American ancestry, presence of intact skulls, and presence of associated donor blood cards collected at the time of body donation. Using these blood cards, DNA from each individual was extracted, amplified, and sequenced through next-generation sequencing for the chosen SNPs. Bioinformatics tests were then applied to observe the presence or absence of the major or minor alleles in specific locations on the genome. After determining the presence or absence of an SNP (minor allele), a set of statistical tests were performed, including Spearman's correlation between the craniometric measurements and the individual's genetic data variables; two-way hierarchical clustering and bootstrap forest modeling between variables that demonstrated significant correlation; a principal components analysis on the craniometric data (interlandmark measurements) and genetic data (SNP presence/absence) to check homogeneity of each data set; and a pairwise Procrustes analysis on the correlation of the two data sets as different groups. The results indicate correlations of varying degrees between the targeted craniofacial regions and the targeted SNPs. Eleven SNPs showed significant correlation (p < 0.05), but the correlations were not as expected and showed some interesting results. By group level there was no significant correlation, but there was correlation at the individual level. While some SNPs affected the soft tissues only, others showed correlations with the skull (hard tissue), a finding not previously reported. Combining craniometric and DNA analyses to leverage genotype-phenotype associations has great potential to expand the discourse of current facial approximation and thereby to provide new investigative tools for human identification in forensic anthropology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perak Man, named after the state where the skeleton was found, was the most complete skeleton found in Southeast Asia. The funerary artefacts indicate that Perak Man was highly respected, as he was buried at the centre of the highest cave in Lenggong, and he was the only person buried there. A copy of the original skull was made using computed tomography (CT) and 3D printing. Based on the internal structure of the reconstructed skull, the estimated intracranial volume (ICV) is 1,204.91 mL. The hypothetical face of Perak Man was reconstructed according to established forensic methods. Based on his presumed status, Perak Man was likely a respected person in the group and, perhaps, a shaman and the most knowledgeable person in the group regarding survival, hunting, gathering and other aspects of Palaeolithic daily life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

3D facial images are reconstructed from 2D portraits using regression trees for facial landmark alignment and 3D morphable models. Two generic regression trees were adopted, one being based on the widely used 68-landmark structure, and the other based on a 74-landmark structure. The Face-Warehouse dataset was used to create a novel 74-landmark regression tree and during the system's evaluation. The accuracy of the models generated was computed through the Root Mean Square, 75th Percentile and Arithmetic Mean comparison metrics. Two different datasets of 2D images were reconstructed. The evaluation results demonstrate that a higher level of accuracy and precision was attained from the models reconstructed using 68-landmark regression tree when compared to the 74 developed here. The accuracy produced by the 68-landmark regression tree applied to two sets was 85 % and 90 % as opposed to the 82 % and 83 % produced by the 74-landmark regression tree on the same model subsets; thus justifying its wide adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic facial reconstruction (FFR) is the technique that combines art and science to recreate the antemortem appearance of an individual in order to recognize and identify the decedent. Over the years, many techniques of FFR and imaging modalities that provide the basic data for FFR have evolved. There is always a considerable debate and confusion regarding the advantages and limitations of these techniques. The aim of this review is to summarize the different techniques of FFR and emphasize the role of radiological techniques including cone beam computed tomography in it.

Forensic Facial Approximation (FFA) or forensic facial reconstruction is a three-dimensional recreation of face of an entity from skull remains which adequately resembles deceased person to allow identification of individual. FFA involves an assimilation of anatomy, forensic science, anthropology, osteology and above all craftsmanship to artistically recreate the identity of the deceased. The aim of the present study was to highlight skills and attributes of dentist/forensic odontologists qualifying him to be part of FFA team. By careful appraisal using various search engines and hand search, we discuss to propose inclusion of a dental expert (preferably a forensic odontologist) to be a part of FFA team based on their sound scientific knowledge about human anatomy, musculature as well as exposure to various hard tissue and soft tissue landmarks that are taught as a part of undergraduate dental curriculum all over the globe. Practical training, material knowledge, artistic handiwork with adept use of various hand instruments given to dentists/forensic odontologist may be extremely beneficial when working on the skull, hence qualifies him/her as an expert to include in team of FFA.

Forensic Facial Approximation (FFA) or forensic facial reconstruction is a three-dimensional recreation of face of an entity from skull remains which adequately resembles deceased person to allow identification of individual. FFA involves an assimilation of anatomy, forensic science, anthropology, osteology and above all craftsmanship to artistically recreate the identity of the deceased. The aim of the present study was to highlight skills and attributes of dentist/forensic odontologists qualifying him to be part of FFA team. By careful appraisal using various search engines and hand search, we discuss to propose inclusion of a dental expert (preferably a forensic odontologist) to be a part of FFA team based on their sound scientific knowledge about human anatomy, musculature as well as exposure to various hard tissue and soft tissue landmarks that are taught as a part of undergraduate dental curriculum all over the globe. Practical training, material knowledge, artistic handiwork with adept use of various hand instruments given to dentists/forensic odontologist may be extremely beneficial when working on the skull, hence qualifies him/her as an expert to include in team of FFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic facial reconstruction may be the final option available to draw public attention in cases where the identity of an individual cannot be established by standard identification methods. Two fundamental components of all forensic facial reconstruction techniques are cranial morphology and soft tissue depth databases. The purpose of this study was to extend such databases by providing a complete set of accurate facial soft tissue thickness measurements, acquired from a contemporary adult population from Germany. The material for the study consisted of 320 (160 male, 160 female) anonymised multi-slice computerised tomography (MSCT) scans of individuals drawn from a German population. In Amira®, 3D models of the surfaces of the skull and the facial skin were semi-automatically segmented using calculated thresholds and surface extraction algorithms. Facial soft tissue depth was measured at 10 midline and 28 bilateral anatomical landmarks. The analysis of facial soft tissue thickness versus BMI, sex and age indicated that, at a number of the landmarks, facial soft tissue depth is significantly ( p < 0.05) influenced by all three biometric variables. Facial soft tissue thickness increased with increasing BMI. The differences between males and females were statistically significant ( p < 0.05) for almost all anatomical landmarks with the exception of a few in the region of the nasal root and orbitals. Asymmetry was noted at over half of the bilateral landmarks. The differences between the results from this sample and those obtained from comparable databases contradict the hypothesis that population specificity significantly influences facial soft tissue thickness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study verified the difference between two methods of forensic facial approximation ( FFA) regarding recognition and resemblance rates. Three-dimensional models of skulls were obtained from computerized tomography ( CT) scans of two subjects (targets). Two manual FFAs were performed for each target, by applying two different guidelines for the facial structures (what we called 'American method' ( AM) and 'Combined method' ( CM)). Unfamiliar assessors evaluated the sculptures by recognition and resemblance tests. The AM was that which allowed more correct responses of recognition and higher resemblance's scores for the male target ( p < 0.001). Regarding guidelines for modeling characteristics of the face, the ones that are practical and easily performed for sculptures, such as the length of the anterior nasal spine multiplied by 3 for nose prediction, may offer better results in terms of resemblance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facial soft tissue thicknesses (FSTT) measurements collected from Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) imaging techniques are most commonly taken in the supine position for forensic craniofacial reconstruction. FSTT have been shown to be different in comparison to the upright position due to gravity. The variation of facial morphology between the upright and supine position of laser-scanned images taken from 44 individuals was investigated using volumetric analysis with deviation maps. Between 82.4% and 86.7% of the facial surface area were within the error range of ±2 mm between the supine and the upright position. This indicates that most anatomical landmarks taken from the MRI and CT data can be an accurate representative of the FSTT in the upright position. Seven landmarks located around the buccal region, masseteric region and the nasolabial region of the face showed the greatest FSTT deviation between the upright and supine position, thus these landmarks may affect the accuracy of facial reconstructions when using a CT or MRI database. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The repeatability of facial soft tissue thickness measurements at 10 standard anatomical landmarks was evaluated using lateral X-ray images obtained from 50 adult subjects. The intra-and inter-observer error rates were calculated after four practitioners took measurements using Denta Pacs 8.1 software. The results indicated high inter- and intra-observer repeatability, suggesting X-ray images can be used to measure facial soft tissue thicknesses for the purpose of craniofacial reconstruction and superimposition. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study investigated the topographic relationships among the eyeball and four orbital margins with the aim of identifying the correlation between orbital geometry and eyeball protrusion in Koreans. Three-dimensional (3D) volume rendering of the face was performed using serial computed-tomography images of 141 Koreans, and several landmarks on the bony orbit and the cornea were directly marked on the 3D volumes. The anterior-posterior distances from the apex of the cornea to each orbital margin and between the orbital margins were measured in both eyes. The distances from the apex of the cornea to the superior, medial, inferior, and lateral orbital margins were 5.8, 5.8, 12.0, and 17.9 mm, respectively. Differences between sides were observed in all of the orbital margins, and the distances from the apex of the cornea to the superior and inferior orbital margins were significantly greater in females than in males. The anterior-posterior distance between the superior and inferior orbital margins did not differ significantly between males (6.3 mm) and females (6.2 mm). The data obtained in this study will be useful when developing practical guidelines applicable to forensic facial reconstruction and orbitofacial surgeries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined several methods used to estimate oral fissure position, lip margin position, and lip thickness recommended by Angel, George, Lebedinskaya, Taylor, Wilkinson et al., Balueva and Veselovskaya. A sample of 86 lateral head cephalograms of adult subjects from central Europe were measured and the actual and predicted dimensions were compared. The best estimation for oral fissure position was 'opposite the lower ¾ mark of maxillary incisors' (error of 1.3 mm). Upper lip margin was predicted best by 'upper ¼ mark of maxillary incisors' (error of 1.7 mm), and lower lip margin by 'cementum-enamel junction of mandibular incisors' (error of 2.3 mm). The regression equations of Wilkinson et al. displayed least error (1.3 mm and 1.8 mm, respectively) for upper and lower lip thickness, and method of George (error of 3.4 mm) for total lip thickness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facial reconstruction is the most frequently used method for human identification in forensic examinations. It is a complex and time-consuming technique and an actively growing field with a wide array of applications. The methods of forensic facial reconstruction are helpful in those cases where other methods of identification are not applicable. Identification of the dead is always a challenging task for forensic teams in cases involving terrorists' attacks and mass disasters where the corpses are fragmented, decomposed, and skeletonized. In such cases, only the skeletal remains and few other clues are available to establish the identity of a person. The progress of facial reconstruction was initiated in the nineteenth century, reconstructing the facial profiles of some famous and rich people. Various novel techniques for facial reconstruction have been devised in the recent past. We conducted literature search, using databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect for analyzing different methods developed and practiced till date for human facial reconstruction. We outline the brief history along with a discussion regarding the different methods of forensic facial reconstruction and their limitations. We also discuss future recommendations and preferences for further research in the field of forensic facial reconstruction and human identification., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Accuracy is the most important factor supporting the reliability of forensic facial reconstruction ( FFR) comparing to the corresponding actual face. A number of methods have been employed to evaluate objective accuracy of FFR. Recently, it has been attempted that the degree of resemblance between computer-generated FFR and actual face is measured by geometric surface comparison method. In this study, three FFRs were produced employing live adult Korean subjects and three-dimensional computerized modeling software. The deviations of the facial surfaces between the FFR and the head scan CT of the corresponding subject were analyzed in reverse modeling software. The results were compared with those from a previous study which applied the same methodology as this study except average facial soft tissue depth dataset. Three FFRs of this study that applied updated dataset demonstrated lesser deviation errors between the facial surfaces of the FFR and corresponding subject than those from the previous study. The results proposed that appropriate average tissue depth data are important to increase quantitative accuracy of FFR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cleft lip and palate (CLP) is a craniofacial malformation affecting more than seven million people worldwide that results in defects of the hard palate, teeth, maxilla, nasal spine and floor, and maxillodental asymmetry. CLP facial soft-tissue depth ( FSTD) values have never been published. The purpose of this research is to report CLP FSTD values and compare them to previously published FSTD values for normal children. Thirty-eight FSTDs were measured on cone beam computed tomography images of CLP children ( n = 86; 7-17 years). MANOVA and ANOVA tests determined whether cleft type, age, sex, and bone graft surgical status affect tissue depths. Both cleft type (unilateral/bilateral) and age influence FSTDs. CLP FSTDs exhibit patterns of variation that differ from normal children, particularly around the oronasal regions of the face. These differences should be taken into account when facial reconstructions of children with CLP are created. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic anthropology is a field shrouded in misconceptions. While the average person has now probably at least heard of the field, they could not tell you what a forensic anthropologist actually does. A common conception of the forensic anthropologist, popularized chiefly by the television show Bones, in which a whip-smart detective uses obscure knowledge of the skeleton to identify bodies, suspects, and even recognize hidden genetic relationships between the victim and suspects based on anthropometry, therefore offering a seemingly magical recreations of what happened just prior to death. While a television show like Bones has swelled the numbers of student enrollment and provided more work for practicing forensic anthropologists, it is still in the best interest of any science to be properly represented. This article will attempt to set out the real methods used by scientists in the field and dispel some of the illusions surrounding it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Human forensic facial soft tissue reconstructions are used when post-mortem deterioration makes identification difficult by usual means. The aim is to trigger recognition of the in vivo countenance of the individual by a friend or family member. A further use is in the field of archaeology. There are a number of different methods that can be applied to complete the facial reconstruction, ranging from two dimensional drawings, three dimensional clay models and now, with the advances of three dimensional technology, three dimensional computerised modelling. Studies carried out to assess the accuracy of facial reconstructions have produced variable results over the years. Advances in three dimensional imaging techniques in the field of oral and maxillofacial surgery, particularly cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), now provides an opportunity to utilise the data of live subjects and assess the accuracy of the three dimensional computerised facial reconstruction technique. Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of a computer modelled facial reconstruction technique using CBCT data from live subjects. Materials and methods: This retrospective pilot study was carried out at the Glasgow Dental Hospital Orthodontic Department and the Centre of Anatomy and Human Identification, Dundee University School of Life Sciences. Ten patients (5 male and 5 female; mean age 23 years) with mild skeletal discrepancies with pre-surgical cone beam CT data (CBCT) were included in this study. The actual and forensic reconstruction soft tissues were analysed using 3D software to look at differences between landmarks, linear and angular measurements and surface meshes. Results and conclusion: There were no statistical differences for 18 out of the 23 linear and 7 out of 8 angular measurements between the reconstruction and the target (p < 0.05). The use of Procrustes superimposition has highlighted potential problems with soft tissue depth and anatomical landmarks' position. Surface mesh analysis showed that this virtual sculpture technique can be objectively assessed using the distance between the meshes. This study found that the percentage of faces with less than 2.5 mm error ranged from 56% to 90%. This may be improved if Procrustes superimposition could be applied to all the mesh points rather than specific landmarks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]