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Summary: Olfaction plays a priming role in both the anticipation and consumption phases of eating behavior. Olfactory dysfunction can therefore lead to changes in various aspects of eating behavior, such as food choice, appetite, and food intake. In light of the increasing prevalence of persistent olfactory dysfunction among patients affected by Covid-19, providing proper care and dietary advice to individuals with olfactory dysfunction is imperative. Therefore, this scoping review seeks to gain a better understanding of the impact of olfactory dysfunction on eating behavior. Following the PRISMA guidelines, 49 papers were included, the outcomes were presented by dividing them into two categories: 1) anticipatory eating behavior, including (anticipatory) food liking, appetite and craving, food preferences, food neophobia, and cooking habits; and 2) consummatory behavior, including, food intake, consumption frequency, adherence to dietary guidelines, (experienced) food liking, food enjoyment, and eating habits. Our results show that in the anticipatory phase of eating behavior, food liking, and, food preferences, and in the consummatory phase, food enjoyment is most affected in people who experienced a sudden change in olfactory function rather than a gradual decline. Moreover, changes in food flavor perception due to olfactory dysfunction, result in a shift of food preferences towards more “taste-based” preferences, such as salty or savory (i.e., umami) foods. Subsequently, changes in preferences can affect food intake and adherence to dietary guidelines, but only to a limited extent. Appetite is more likely to be low in individuals with short-term olfactory dysfunction compared to those with long-term changes. Generally, eating behavior is more impacted in individuals with a distorted sense of smell than in those with smell loss, and the effect becomes more pronounced over time. Due to the heterogeneity of methods used to measure different aspects of eating behavior, this review stresses the importance of more research on olfaction and eating behavior using standardized and validated assessments. Such research is essential to better understand the effects of olfactory dysfunction on each aspect of eating behavior and provide effective interventions.

Food neophobia is defined as the unwillingness to taste new foods and the avoidance of unfamiliar foods. This eating behaviour is a complex issue, and both genetic and environmental factors play a role in it. The aim of this review is to understand its relationships with dietary behaviours throughout the lifespan and to examine the impact of interventions on food neophobia. A literature search was performed using the PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library and ScienceDirect databases. As a result of the screening, a total of 139 studies, seven of which were intervention studies, were included in this review. According to current evidence, food neophobia is negatively associated with the acceptance of not only novel/unfamiliar foods but also familiar foods. Many studies have shown that food neophobia is negatively associated with the hedonics and consumption of core foods, especially vegetables and fruits. Individuals with higher levels of food neophobia are less familiar with many foods, but familiarity is a prominent motivator in food choices for these individuals. Therefore, it may be considered a barrier limiting diet quality and this trend is similar for both children and adults. However, food neophobia is not an unchangeable personality trait. Intervention studies have pointed out that educational programmes and food-related activities that increase familiarity and exposure to foods and create positive attitudes towards and positive experiences with foods can reduce food neophobia. The results highlight that people with high food neophobia need more support to improve their diets and the quality of dietary behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveThis study examined the liking of fruits and vegetables among college students and the relationship between skin carotenoid levels and liking of fruits and vegetables. Participants: Sixty-six undergraduate students enrolled at a university in the southeastern United States participated in this study beginning August 2019. Methods: Skin carotenoid levels were measured using the Veggie Meter® reflection spectroscopy device. Liking of individual fruits and vegetables was measured using a hedonic general Labeled Magnitude Scale. Results: There were significant differences in mean skin carotenoid levels by year of study and age group. Students had a very strong liking for potatoes and pineapple. Veggie Meter scores and overall liking for fruits and vegetables were positively correlated. Conclusions: In order to encourage the consumption of fruits and vegetables, preferences for specific fruits and vegetables as well as accessibility should be considered to better serve and accommodate college students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetics plays an important role in individual differences in food liking, which influences food choices and health. Sweet food liking is a complex trait and has been associated with increased body mass index (BMI) and related comorbidities. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) aimed to investigate the genetics of sweet food liking using two adult discovery cohorts (n = 1109, n = 373) and an independent replication cohort (n = 1073). In addition, we tested the association of our strongest result on parameters related to behaviour (food adventurousness (FA) and reward dependence (RD) and health status (BMI and blood glucose). The results demonstrate a novel strong association between the Regulator of G-Protein Signalling 9 (RGS9I) gene, strongest single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs58931966 (p-value 7.05 × 10−9 in the combined sample of discovery and replication), and sweet food liking, with the minor allele (A) being associated with a decreased sweet food liking. We also found that the A allele of the rs58931966 SNP was associated with decreased FA and RD, and increased BMI and blood glucose (p-values < 0.05). Differences were highlighted in sex-specific analysis on BMI and glucose. Our results highlight a novel genetic association with food liking and are indicative of genetic variation influencing the psychological–biological drivers of food preference. If confirmed in other studies, such genetic associations could allow a greater understanding of chronic disease management from both a habitual dietary intake and reward-related perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to determine the relationship between taste threshold (sweet, bitter, sour, salt, fat), food neophobia and food liking. A total of 51 nonsmoking and healthy individuals were recruited in Ankara, Turkey. The taste threshold was assessed using the 3alternate forced choice methodology. Food neophobia score was applied to determine whether there was a fear of trying new foods. The food liking questionnaire had 50 items (sweet foods, salty foods, sour foods, bitter foods, fatty foods) based on taste classification. The subjects indicated their level of liking on a 10point scale that ranged from 1 ("strongly disliking") to 10 ("strongly liking"). The results showed that the sweet threshold and fat threshold of neophobics were higher than those of neophilics and neutral adults (p < 0.05). There was no correlation between food liking scores and either taste thresholds or food neophobia scores. However, food neophobia scores positively correlated with sweet and fat taste thresholds (p < 0.05). The findings suggest that food neophobia may be linked to some tastes, while food liking may depend on further factors, such as habits, food environment and any factor related to the food choice of the individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insufficient protein intake is a common challenge among older adults, leading to loss of muscle mass, decreased function and reduced quality of life. A protein intake of 0.4 g/kg body weight/meal is recommended to help prevent muscle loss. The purpose of this study was to assess whether the protein intake of 0.4 g/kg body weight/meal could be achieved with typical foods and whether culinary spices could enhance protein intake. A lunch meal test was conducted in 100 community-dwelling volunteers; 50 were served a meat entrée and 50 were served a vegetarian entrée with or without added culinary spices. Food consumption, liking and perceived flavor intensity were assessed using a randomized, two-period, within subjects crossover design. Within the meat or vegetarian treatments, there were no differences in entrée or meal intakes between spiced and non-spiced meals. Participants fed meat consumed 0.41 g protein/kg body weight/meal, while the vegetarian intake was 0.25 g protein/kg body weight/meal. The addition of spice to the vegetarian entrée significantly increased liking and flavor intensity of both the entrée and the entire meal, while spice addition only increased flavor for the meat offering. Culinary spices may be a useful tool to improve the liking and flavor of high-quality protein sources among older adults, especially when used with plant-based foods, although improving liking and flavor alone are insufficient to increase protein intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Disliked music can negatively influence hunger levels and food liking. • Liked music evoked positive emotions and enhanced food pleasantness. • Changes in heart rate and skin conductance were reported based on music preference while viewing food. • Disliked music caused a rise in skin conductance, indicating arousal. Sensory cues like music can influence our behaviour towards food. In the present study, the effect of music on hunger, fullness, desire to eat and liking of foods, while viewing real lunch food items, was investigated. To this end, emotions and physiological measures were obtained to understand the changes in hunger, fullness, desire to eat and liking. The study aimed to examine changes in hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and liking when viewing a lunch meal under silent and varying music conditions. Additionally, the study explored the potential role of emotions to explain these changes. A crossover experimental design was employed using 50 participants (17 males and 33 females) who observed lunch food items during a silent condition (control), or while listening to either liked or disliked music. The findings demonstrate the cross-modal influence of music on hunger and food liking ratings when viewing food. Hunger ratings were higher and more negative emotions were evoked while viewing lunch food items and listening to disliked music. In contrast, in the silent and liked music conditions, which elicited more positive emotions, there were increased ratings of healthy and unhealthy food pleasantness, overall food liking, and food satisfaction. Electrophysiological measures of heart rate (HR) and skin conductance (SC) were obtained while listening to music and viewing a lunch meal. Viewing food items while listening to disliked music evoked negative emotions and significantly increased SC compared to liked music or silent conditions. Viewing the food items under the silent condition evoked positive emotions and significantly increased HR compared to listening to liked and disliked music. This study showed that the participants' emotions, hunger level, liking, and electrophysiological responses when viewing food are influenced by music that varied with liking. Results from this study may assist in enhancing dining experiences, as well as influencing food choices and satisfaction with meals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: When children choose amounts of food to eat, it is unclear what influences the portions they select and whether their selections are related to the amounts they consume.Objectives: Using a computer survey, we investigated the effect of food liking on portion selection in middle childhood and examined how children's selections were related to measured intake at meals in which portions of all foods were varied across 4 test days.Methods: Fifty-one children aged 7-10 y completed a computer survey of 20 common foods with a range of energy density. For each food, the survey presented sliding scales with 5 images varying in portion size and children indicated their liking and the amount they would eat at a specified meal or snack. On 4 test days in a randomized crossover design, children were served a meal of 6 foods from the survey with portions of 100%, 133%, 167%, or 200% of baseline amounts. Data were analyzed using random coefficients models.Results: Across the 20 foods used in the survey, portion selection ratings were predicted by food liking ratings (P < 0.0001). After accounting for liking, portion selection ratings did not vary by food energy density (P = 0.50). At the meals, intake of all 6 foods increased when larger portions were served (P = 0.002). Furthermore, the selected portion of a food on the survey was positively related both to intake of that food at the 100%-portion meal (P = 0.014) and to increased intake as larger portions were served (P < 0.0001).Conclusions: Children aged 7-10 y were able to use a computer survey to choose food portions that predicted their measured intake in response to increased portions. The relation of liking to selection and intake indicates that to promote children's consumption of larger portions of low-energy-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables, these foods must be well liked by the children. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02759523. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olfactory dysfunction often has severe consequences on patients' quality of life. The most common complaint in these patients is their reduced enjoyment of food in both patients with olfactory loss and parosmia. How the different types of olfactory dysfunction differ in relation to food and cooking habits, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life has not yet received much attention. By applying questionnaires on cooking, food, olfactory function, weight changes, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life, we investigated how various aspects of eating differ between participants with olfactory loss (n = 271), parosmia (n = 251), and normosmic controls (n = 166). Cooking habits in olfactory dysfunction revealed pronounced differences as compared with normosmic controls. Cooking with olfactory dysfunction was associated with, e.g., a lack of comfort and inspiration for cooking and an inability to make new foods successfully. Significant differences in cooking were also found between olfactory loss and parosmia. Food items were less familiar in participants with olfactory loss and parosmia, while the ratings of liking food items differed between olfactory loss and parosmia, indicating the importance of adapting ingredients in meals separately for olfactory loss and parosmia. Parosmia was associated with a higher incidence of weight loss, but we found no difference in food-related quality of life between participants with olfactory loss and parosmia. While olfactory loss and parosmia have wide-ranging consequences on patients' cooking and food habits, adapting meals to include 'safer food items' and integrating multisensory stimulation may be a possible avenue for improving the enjoyment of food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Consumer reactions to a snack with health- versus taste-related information was studied. • Both implicit and explicit consumer reactions were examined. • Explicitly, perceived healthiness positively influenced expected tastiness and explicit liking when the snack showed health-related information. • In contrast, when the snack showed taste-related information, perceived healthiness did not significantly influence expected tastiness or explicit liking. • Implicit and explicit liking were positively correlated when the snack had taste-related information but not when it had health-related information. Despite extensive consumer testing during product development, healthy snacks often fail in the market. This indicates that other factors are at play besides what is traditionally being tested before product launch. The aim of the study was to examine how exposure to a snack with a health versus taste message affects perceived healthiness, expected tastiness, as well as implicit and explicit consumer liking, and how implicit and explicit liking are related. In a between-subjects design, consumers were either exposed to a snack with health- or taste-related information on the product package. To capture both implicit and explicit consumer reactions, this research utilized a combination of implicit (EEG data) and explicit (questionnaire) measures. Results indicate that explicitly perceived healthiness positively influences expected tastiness and explicit liking when health-related information is present on the product package. Implicit and explicit liking aligned for snacks positioned as tasty, whereas for healthy snacks, implicit and explicit liking did not align. This implies that using implicit measures of liking can help to understand consumer preferences, especially when studying products with health-related information on the product package. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This study explores children's food acceptance, liking of single foods. • Children reported their own liking and expectations of others' liking of ice cream and broccoli. • Children reported stronger liking for themselves than others, but only for ice cream, not broccoli. • Children's recognition that food acceptance can vary by person has implications for many fields. This study explores children's food acceptance, liking of single foods, with a focus on whether children expect that people share similar food likes considering the evolutionary, biological, and social underpinnings of this domain. In this study, 41 children (M age = 8.26 years; 37 % female, 56 % male, 7 % nonbinary; 85.4 % White, 7.2 % Bi/Multiracial, 4.8 % Asian, 2.4 % Black) were asked about their own liking and to predict others' liking of two food product categories: ice cream and broccoli. The results reveal that children report stronger food liking for themselves than others (Cohen's d 's > 0.50), but only for ice cream, not broccoli (Cohen's d 's > 0.40). These results begin to suggest that children recognize that their food acceptance can vary from others', which has potential implications across diverse fields (e.g., psychology, consumer science, education, and dietetics). For example, the findings can inform food product development by enabling tailored designs for children's distinct food likes. Moreover, understanding children's food likes can be used to promote healthful eating and influence food purchases as children become consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetics plays an important role in individual differences in food liking, which influences food choices and health. Sweet food liking is a complex trait and has been associated with increased body mass index (BMI) and related comorbidities. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) aimed to investigate the genetics of sweet food liking using two adult discovery cohorts (n = 1109, n = 373) and an independent replication cohort (n = 1073). In addition, we tested the association of our strongest result on parameters related to behaviour (food adventurousness (FA) and reward dependence (RD) and health status (BMI and blood glucose). The results demonstrate a novel strong association between the Regulator of G-Protein Signalling 9 (RGS9I) gene, strongest single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs58931966 (p-value 7.05 × 10−9 in the combined sample of discovery and replication), and sweet food liking, with the minor allele (A) being associated with a decreased sweet food liking. We also found that the A allele of the rs58931966 SNP was associated with decreased FA and RD, and increased BMI and blood glucose (p-values < 0.05). Differences were highlighted in sex-specific analysis on BMI and glucose. Our results highlight a novel genetic association with food liking and are indicative of genetic variation influencing the psychological–biological drivers of food preference. If confirmed in other studies, such genetic associations could allow a greater understanding of chronic disease management from both a habitual dietary intake and reward-related perspective.

Smell, which allows us to gather information about the hedonic value of an odor, is affected by many factors. This study aimed to assess the relationship among individual factors, odor sensitivity, and enjoyment, and to evaluate how overall flavor perception and liking in actual food samples are affected by odor sensitivity. A total of 749 subjects, from four different Italian regions, participated in the study. The olfactory capabilities test on four odors (anise, banana, mint, and pine), as well as PROP (6-n-prpyl-2-thiouracil) status and food neophobia were assessed. The subjects were clustered into three groups of odor sensitivity, based on the perceived intensity of anise. The liking and intensity of the overall flavor were evaluated for four chocolate puddings with increasing sweetness (C1, C2, C3, and C4). The individual variables significantly affected the perceived intensity and liking of the odors. Even if all of the odor sensitivity groups perceived the more intensely flavored samples as the C1 and C4 chocolate puddings, the high-sensitivity group scored the global flavor of all of the samples as more intense than the low-sensitivity group. The low-sensitive subjects evaluated the liking of the sweeter samples with higher scores than the moderate-sensitive subjects, whereas the high-sensitive subjects gave intermediate scores. In conclusion, odor sensitivity plays a pivotal role in the perception and liking of real food products; this has to be taken into account in the formulation of new products, suitable for particular categories with reduced olfactory abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insufficient protein intake is a common challenge among older adults, leading to loss of muscle mass, decreased function and reduced quality of life. A protein intake of 0.4 g/kg body weight/meal is recommended to help prevent muscle loss. The purpose of this study was to assess whether the protein intake of 0.4 g/kg body weight/meal could be achieved with typical foods and whether culinary spices could enhance protein intake. A lunch meal test was conducted in 100 community-dwelling volunteers; 50 were served a meat entrée and 50 were served a vegetarian entrée with or without added culinary spices. Food consumption, liking and perceived flavor intensity were assessed using a randomized, two-period, within subjects crossover design. Within the meat or vegetarian treatments, there were no differences in entrée or meal intakes between spiced and non-spiced meals. Participants fed meat consumed 0.41 g protein/kg body weight/meal, while the vegetarian intake was 0.25 g protein/kg body weight/meal. The addition of spice to the vegetarian entrée significantly increased liking and flavor intensity of both the entrée and the entire meal, while spice addition only increased flavor for the meat offering. Culinary spices may be a useful tool to improve the liking and flavor of high-quality protein sources among older adults, especially when used with plant-based foods, although improving liking and flavor alone are insufficient to increase protein intake.

Olfactory dysfunction often has severe consequences on patients’ quality of life. The most common complaint in these patients is their reduced enjoyment of food in both patients with olfactory loss and parosmia. How the different types of olfactory dysfunction differ in relation to food and cooking habits, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life has not yet received much attention. By applying questionnaires on cooking, food, olfactory function, weight changes, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life, we investigated how various aspects of eating differ between participants with olfactory loss (n = 271), parosmia (n = 251), and normosmic controls (n = 166). Cooking habits in olfactory dysfunction revealed pronounced differences as compared with normosmic controls. Cooking with olfactory dysfunction was associated with, e.g., a lack of comfort and inspiration for cooking and an inability to make new foods successfully. Significant differences in cooking were also found between olfactory loss and parosmia. Food items were less familiar in participants with olfactory loss and parosmia, while the ratings of liking food items differed between olfactory loss and parosmia, indicating the importance of adapting ingredients in meals separately for olfactory loss and parosmia. Parosmia was associated with a higher incidence of weight loss, but we found no difference in food-related quality of life between participants with olfactory loss and parosmia. While olfactory loss and parosmia have wide-ranging consequences on patients’ cooking and food habits, adapting meals to include ‘safer food items’ and integrating multisensory stimulation may be a possible avenue for improving the enjoyment of food.

Eating behavior (EB) is a complex system influenced by many factors, but an undisputed role is played by the senses. In this work, we examined the effect of the sensory capacities on EB in 1152 Italian adult individuals. After administering a questionnaire on EB and assessing sensory performance through standard audiometric, olfactory, and taste tests, the prevalence of reduced sensory capacities (RSCs) and the correlation with selected risk factors were calculated. Regression models, structural equation modelling, and conditional recursive partitioning were used to investigate the relationship between variables. Around 70% of the subjects show reduced capacities in at least one sense, with taste being the most prevalent (55.21%). Male sex, aging, and low educational level are risk factors for RSCs. The increased number of senses with reduced capacities is a predictor of diminished food adventurousness and lower liking for vegetables, fish, and alcoholic beverages, while reduced capacities (RCs) in taste is a predictor of lower liking for alcoholic beverages and sweets. Overall, in addition to providing an overall picture of RSCs in Italian samples, our study reveals the association of RSCs with EB variables. This finding could have a relevant role in influencing individuals’ dietary habits and, therefore, health status.

Smell, which allows us to gather information about the hedonic value of an odor, is affected by many factors. This study aimed to assess the relationship among individual factors, odor sensitivity, and enjoyment, and to evaluate how overall flavor perception and liking in actual food samples are affected by odor sensitivity. A total of 749 subjects, from four different Italian regions, participated in the study. The olfactory capabilities test on four odors (anise, banana, mint, and pine), as well as PROP (6-n-prpyl-2-thiouracil) status and food neophobia were assessed. The subjects were clustered into three groups of odor sensitivity, based on the perceived intensity of anise. The liking and intensity of the overall flavor were evaluated for four chocolate puddings with increasing sweetness (C1, C2, C3, and C4). The individual variables significantly affected the perceived intensity and liking of the odors. Even if all of the odor sensitivity groups perceived the more intensely flavored samples as the C1 and C4 chocolate puddings, the high-sensitivity group scored the global flavor of all of the samples as more intense than the low-sensitivity group. The low-sensitive subjects evaluated the liking of the sweeter samples with higher scores than the moderate-sensitive subjects, whereas the high-sensitive subjects gave intermediate scores. In conclusion, odor sensitivity plays a pivotal role in the perception and liking of real food products; this has to be taken into account in the formulation of new products, suitable for particular categories with reduced olfactory abilities.

Objective: The goal of this study was to develop and evaluate a 5-week intervention that targeted self-regulation and healthy food liking through mindfulness and classroom-based games with exposure to fruits and vegetables. Methods: Children (mean age, 3.6 ± 0.05 years) in 1 Head Start center received the classroom-based intervention (n = 24) and children in a second did not (n = 15). Assessments of self-regulation and liking of fruits and vegetables were administered pre- and postintervention. Results: Children in the intervention, but not the comparison group, experienced significant improvements in behavioral regulation (P = 0.003) and liking of fruits and vegetables (P = 0.02). Conclusions and Implications: This study lays a foundation for future research that replicates findings with a larger sample using a randomized controlled design, incorporates more typical mindful eating practices, and includes additional, broader measures of food liking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine longitudinal patterns of child introduction to foods and drinks targeted for restriction by parents and associations between child intake frequency, mother's own liking, child early exposure and child liking for restricted foods and drinks at 5 years old.Design: The study involved secondary analyses of longitudinal data from mothers and children participating in the NOURISH randomised controlled trial. Patterns of descriptive data were examined, and a binary logistic regression model tested for prediction of child liking of a selection of restricted foods and drinks.Setting: Brisbane and Adelaide, Australia.Participants: Two hundred and eleven mothers and their first born 5-year-old children.Results: The proportion of children who had tried the selected restricted foods and drinks progressively increased from 14 months to 5 years old. Mothers' own high liking for both sweet and savoury restricted foods and drinks predicted child high liking for the same items at 5 years old. Child high intake frequency at 5 years old also predicted child high liking for sweet foods and drinks, but child early exposure did not predict child liking for the restricted items examined.Conclusions: These results challenge the belief that limiting children's intake of foods high in sugar, fat and/or salt will increase their liking for them. Findings instead suggest that restricting children's access to such foods may be beneficial. While further research is required, mothers should be made aware that their own food preferences may inadvertently influence their child's liking for the very foods they are trying to restrict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Sounds can affect food and flavor perception. For example, loud noise can affect taste perception. In the present study, we examined whether exposure to ~ 80-dB magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) acoustic noise affects taste perception. Methods: Participants (N = 27) came to the lab twice for a taste test, a smell test, and evaluating sweet and savory food items: once when continuously being exposed to loud MRI acoustic noise and once when being exposed to much quieter background noise. It was hypothesized that exposure to loud noise would impair taste perception, especially identifying and detecting sweet taste, and that it would decrease liking for the taste of particularly sweet foods. Results: Neither overall taste detection nor sweet taste detection was affected by exposure to MRI acoustic noise. Further, we found no effect of noise on sweet food liking, but exploratory analyses do imply such an effect of MRI noise on liking for savory foods, with these foods being significantly less liked when exposed to MRI acoustic noise. Conclusion: We conclude that loud noises do not necessarily affect chemosensory perception. Implications: MRI acoustic noise specifically does not seem to have a relevant effect on smell and taste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: An individual's liking for food maybe associated with food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and dietary quality in Australian young adults.Methods and Study Design: Food liking and food frequency data were collected via an online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Food liking scores were calculated for groupings of foods. FFQ Food intake data was used to calculate diet quality using a 13 item Dietary Guideline Index (DGI). The relationship between food liking and DGI was assessed using linear regression models and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test and One-way ANOVA.Results: Data were available from n=2,535 participants (BMI=24 (SD 3.74), age=21.9 (SD 5.05) years, female=77.1%). Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein, was weakly positively associated with diet quality. Liking for animal-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, and salty food, was weakly negatively associated with diet quality. Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein and healthy foods increased across increasing DGI tertiles, and liking for animalbased protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food and discretionary foods decreased across increasing DGI tertiles.Conclusions: The results were logical with increased liking for healthy or discretionary foods linked with increased consumption of those foods. The results reinforce the strategy to introduce a variety of healthy food groups early in life to initiate flavour-nutrient learning and increase liking for healthy foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adolescence period is characterized by a considerable risk to weight gain due to the high consumption of food rich in sugar. A promising strategy to reduce sugar consumption may lie in exploiting the ability of our senses to interact to each other (cross-modal interactions). The aims were to investigate the cross-modal interactions and gustatory function in normal-weight and overweight adolescents. Fifty adolescents (25 overweight and 25 normal-weight) were involved. Subjects rated liking and attribute intensity in pudding samples obtained by adding vanilla aroma (0.1%; 0.3%), butter aroma (0.05%; 0.1%) or a thickener agent (1%; 1.5%) to a base formulation. The gustatory function was also measured through the “taste strips” methodology. Overweight adolescents were found to have a significantly (p < 0.001) worse ability to correctly identify all tastes. Cross-modal interactions occurred differently according to their body mass index, with a significant increase (p < 0.05) in sensory desirable characteristics (e.g., sweet and creaminess) due to aroma addition, especially in overweight subjects. Furthermore, butter aroma significantly increased hedonic responses only in overweight subjects. Tricking our senses in the way of perceiving sensory attributes could be a promising strategy to develop innovative food formulations with a reduced sugar amount, which will lead to a potential decrease in caloric intake and help to tackle the obesity epidemic.

An exposure to sweetened and fatty foods early in life may be involved in high liking later in life. The objective is to investigate the association between dietary exposure to carbohydrate, sugars and fat in infancy, with liking for sweetness, fattiness and fattiness-and-sweetness sensations at 8-to-12-year-old. Analyses were conducted on 759 French children from the EDEN mother-child cohort. Carbohydrate, sugar or fat intake, being a consumer of added sugars or added fats were assessed at 8 and 12 months using 3-day food records. The liking score (0–10) for the different sensations was assessed through an online child-completed questionnaire. Associations were tested by linear regressions adjusted for main confounders and the interaction with sex was tested. None of the early dietary exposure variables was related to fattiness liking. Carbohydrate intake at 8 months was positively but weakly associated with liking for sweetness-and-fattiness. In girls only, carbohydrate intake at 12 months was positively associated with liking for sweetness. Globally, no marked associations were observed between infant dietary exposure to sweet and fat and liking for sweetness and fattiness in young children. The positive link in girls between early carbohydrate exposure and later liking for sweetness needs to be confirmed in further studies.

The study aimed to investigate the role of sensitivity to flowability on food liking and choice, the relationship between sensitivity to flowability and food neophobia, and its role in food liking. Five chocolate creams were prepared with different levels of flowability, and rheological measurements were performed to characterise them. One hundred seventy-six subjects filled in the Food Neophobia Scale and a food choice questionnaire (FCq). The FCq was developed to evaluate preferences within a pair of food items similar in flavour but different in texture. Secondly, the subjects evaluated their liking for creams (labelled affective magnitude (LAM) scale) and the flowability intensity (generalised labelled magnitude (gLM) scale). The subjects were clustered into three groups of sensitivity and two groups of choice preference. The effect of individual flowability sensitivity on food choice was investigated. Finally, the subjects were clustered into two groups according to their food neophobia level. The sensitivity to flowability significantly affected the liking of chocolate creams and the solid food choice. The liking of chocolate creams was also affected by the individual level of neophobia (p = 0.01), which, in turn, was not correlated to flowability sensitivity. These results confirm that texture sensitivity and food neophobia affect what a person likes and drives what a person chooses to eat.

Background and Objectives: An individual's liking of food may be associated with Body Mass Index (BMI) due to its subsequent impact on food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and BMI in young adults from Australia and Thailand.Methods and Study Design: Food liking data were collected via a validated online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ). Food liking scores were calculated for overall liking of groupings of foods: grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, animal protein, plant-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food, and alcohol. The relationship between food liking and BMI (calculated from self-reported height and weight) was assessed using linear regression models including country and gender, and mean differences were assessed using independent sample t-test.Results: Data were available from n=4,173 participants (BMI=22.25 (SD 4.18), age=20.6 (SD 4.22) years, female=71.6%, Thai=52.5%). There were significant differences of food liking between countries for all of food groups (p<0.01) except for animal-based protein and plantbased protein liking. BMI was positively, but weakly, associated with liking of animal-based protein (β=0.20 [0.12, 0.28], p<0.001), and alcohol (β=0.08 [0.02, 0.13], p<0.01) and negatively associated with plant-based protein (β=-0.09 [-0.18, -0.01], p<0.05). There was significant difference of food liking between weight status for all of food groups.Conclusions: This study supports only minor associations between food liking and BMI, but cultural and gender variation in liking was evident. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Lifestyle, clinical and food liking data from a large Italian cohort were analysed. • Survey-reported food liking differed by gender, age and food adventurousness. • Survey-reported food liking was associated with adiposity and serum lipids. Abstract Food preferences are influenced by a large number of physiological, nutritional, environmental, sociocultural and genetic factors. From previous studies, survey-reported food likings may reflect habitual intake, being cognitively simple to recall than intake, and have associated with risk factor for diet-related diseases. This work was secondary analysis of a large dataset of personal, clinical and lifestyle measures from 3219 Italian adults to investigate: 1) factors associated with food liking; 2) the relationship between food liking and metabolic phenotypes. Seven food liking groups (alcoholic beverages, cheeses, fish, fruit, meat, sweets foods and vegetables) were defined based on a questionnaire completed by each participant. Multivariate regression analyses showed that factors such as age, gender, education and food behaviour were related with food liking groups. For example, males reported significantly greater liking for alcoholic beverages, fish and meat and a lower liking for vegetables, fruit and sweet foods. Greater liking for all foods was associated with greater self-reported willingness to try unfamiliar foods (food adventurousness). In multivariate regression models and independently from other measures, food liking groups were associated with adiposity, serum lipids, fasting glucose and systolic blood pressure. For instance, greater adiposity was associated with higher liking for meat and cheeses, while higher HDL-cholesterol was associated with higher vegetables liking. Our results from a large adult cohort highlight that many factors may shape survey-reported food liking and suggest their link with metabolic measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Low inhibitory control and strong hedonic response towards food are considered to contribute to overeating and obesity. Based on previous research, the present study aimed at examining the potentially crucial interplay between these two factors in terms of long-term weight loss in people with obesity. Methods: BMI, inhibitory control towards food, and food liking were assessed in obese adults prior to a weight reduction programme (OPTIFAST® 52). After the weight reduction phase (week 13) and the weight loss maintenance phase (week 52), participants' BMI was re-assessed. Results: Baseline BMI, inhibitory control and food liking alone did not predict weight loss. As hypothesised, however, inhibitory control and food liking interactively predicted weight loss from baseline to week 13 and to week 52 (albeit the latter effect was less robust). Participants with low inhibitory control and marked food liking were less successful in weight reduction. Conclusion: These findings underscore the relevance of the interplay between cognitive control and food reward valuation in the maintenance of obesity.

The degree to which foods are liked or disliked is associated with dietary intake and health behaviours. However, most food liking research has focused on single foods and nutrients and few studies have examined associations with demographics and health behaviours. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the association between food liking and socio-demographics, health behaviours, diet quality and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of young Australian adults. Data from 1728 undergraduate students (21.8 (standard deviation [SD] 6.0) years; 76% female) were used. Food liking scores and a diet quality index (Dietary Guideline Index, DGI) were estimated from a Food Liking Questionnaire and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), respectively. Multivariate linear regression analyses were used to assess the association between food liking and correlates. Young adults with higher liking for encouraged core foods were older, female, did their own food shopping, consumed less packaged foods and had better diet quality. Higher liking for discretionary foods and beverages was associated with less healthy behaviours, such as smoking, higher BMI and lower diet quality. These results suggest that food liking measures may offer an appropriate methodology for understanding influences on young adults’ food choices, adding to the body of literature investigating the potential for food liking scores to assess diet–disease relationships.

This study investigates the relationships between basic tastes and fattiness sensitivity and food liking in 11-year-old children. The basic taste sensitivity of 106 children was measured using different methods, namely detection (DT) and recognition (RT) thresholds, and taste responsiveness. Caffeine and quinine (bitter), sucrose (sweet), citric acid (sour), sodium chloride (salty), and monosodium glutamate (umami) were investigated for DT and RT at five concentrations in water solutions. In addition, taste responsiveness and liking were collected for the high-intensity concentrations. PROP (6-n-propylthiouracil) responsiveness was tested on paper strips. Fattiness sensitivity was measured by a paired comparison method using milk samples with varying fat content. Liking for 30 food items was recorded using a food-list questionnaire. The test was completed in a gamified “taste detective” approach. The results show that DT correlates with RT for all tastes while responsiveness to PROP correlates with overall taste responsiveness. Caffeine and quinine differ in bitterness responsiveness and liking. Girls have significantly lower DTs than boys for bitterness and sweetness. Food liking is driven by taste and fattiness properties, while fatty food liking is significantly influenced by fattiness sensitivity. These results contribute to a better holistic understanding of taste and fattiness sensitivity in connection to food liking in preadolescents.

Several studies indicate that the outcome of nutritional and lifestyle interventions can be linked to brain 'signatures' in terms of neural reactivity to food cues. However, 'dieting' is often considered in a rather broad sense, and no study so far investigated modulations in brain responses to food cues occurring over an intervention specifically aiming to reduce sugar intake. We studied neural activity and liking in response to visual food cues in 14 intensive consumers of sugar-sweetened beverages before and after a 3-month replacement period by artificially-sweetened equivalents. Each time, participants were presented with images of solid foods differing in fat content and taste quality while high-density electroencephalography was recorded. Contrary to our hypotheses, there was no significant weight loss over the intervention period and no changes were observed in food liking or in neural activity in regions subserving salience and reward attribution. However, neural activity in response to high-fat, sweet foods was significantly reduced from pre-to post-intervention in prefrontal regions often linked to impulse control. This decrease in activity was associated with weight loss failure, suggesting an impairment in individuals' ability to exert control and adjust their solid food intake over the intervention period. Our findings highlight the need to implement multidisciplinary approaches when aiming to help individuals lose body weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire assessing food liking in a French-Canadian population. A questionnaire was developed, in which participants were asked to rate their degree of liking of 50 food items. An expert panel evaluated the content validity. For the validation study, 150 men and women completed the questionnaire twice. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed to assess the number of subscales of the questionnaire. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the subscales were evaluated. Concurrent validity was assessed through correlations between liking scores and self-reported frequencies of consumption. Comments from the experts led to changes in the list of foods included in the questionnaire. The EFA revealed a two-factor structure for the questionnaire (i.e., savory and sweet foods) and led to the removal of nine items, resulting in a 32-item questionnaire. The two subscales revealed good internal consistency (Cronbach alphas: 0.85 and 0.89) and test-retest reliability (p = 0.84 and 0.86). The questionnaire demonstrated adequate concurrent validity, with moderate correlations between food liking and self-reported frequency of consumption (r = 0.19-0.39, ps < 0.05). This new Food Liking Questionnaire assessing liking of a variety of savory and sweet foods demonstrated good psychometric properties in every validation step. This questionnaire will be useful to explore the role of food liking and its interactions with other factors in predicting eating behaviors and energy intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The LFPQ-fr proposes a culturally adapted tool to evaluate food reward in French populations. • The LFPQ-fr is a reproducible and reliable methods to approach liking and wanting for food. • The LFPQ-fr is reliable in identifying the effect of a meal on French individuals food reward. There is a growing global interest in the evaluation of food reward, necessitating the adaptation of culturally appropriate instruments for use in empirical studies. This work presents the development and validation of a culturally adapted French version of the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ-fr). The LFPQ-fr was developed and validated in healthy-weight adults using the following systematic approach: i) selection and validation of appropriate food pictures; ii) linguistic translation of liking and wanting constructs in the target population (n = 430; 81% female; 42.2 ± 12.7 years); iii) validation of the sensitivity and reliability of the task performed in a fasted state and in response to a standardized test meal (n = 50; 50% female; 30.0 ± 8.4 years). During the first and second phases, the nutritional and perceptual validation of culturally appropriate food pictures and pertinent reward constructs, respectively, was demonstrated in a healthy-weight French sample. Findings from the third phase indicated that all food reward components were sensitive to the test meal and showed moderate to high agreement in both fasted (Lin's CCC =0.72–0.94) and fed (Lin's CCC = 0.53–0.80) appetitive states between visit 1 (V1) and visit (V2). Except for explicit liking fat bias, all primary outcomes were statistically consistent in fasted and fed states between V1 and V2. Changes in fat and taste biases in response to a standardized meal for all primary outcomes were also consistent between V1 and V2 except for explicit liking fat bias (Lin's CCC = 0.49- 0.72). The LFPQ-fr developed and tested in this study is a reproducible and reliable method to assess food reward in both the fasted and fed states in a healthy-weight French population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is recommended that preschoolers serve themselves their own food portions; however, it is unclear what factors influence the amount they select for consumption, and particularly how their selected portions are influenced by food properties such as energy density, volume, and weight. We offered preschool children snacks differing in energy density (ED) and investigated the effects on the amounts they served and then consumed. In a crossover design, 52 children aged 4–6 y (46% girls; 21% overweight) ate an afternoon snack on 2 days in their childcare classrooms. Before each snack time, children served the amount they would like to eat of 4 snacks presented in equal volumes but differing in ED (higher-ED: pretzels, cookies; lower-ED: strawberries, carrots). Across the 2 sessions, children were given their self-served amount of either pretzels (3.9 kcal/g) or strawberries (0.3 kcal/g) and intake was measured. Later, children tasted all 4 snacks and rated liking. Results showed that the portions children served themselves were influenced by their liking ratings (p = 0.0006), but after accounting for liking, the volumes they served were similar for all 4 foods (p = 0.27). At snack time, children ate a greater proportion of self-served strawberries (92 ± 4%) than pretzels (73 ± 4%; p = 0.0003), but because of the ED difference they consumed 55 ± 4 kcal more from pretzels than strawberries (p < 0.0001). The difference in snack intake by volume was not attributable to liking ratings (p = 0.87). That children served a consistent volume of similarly-liked snacks suggests that their portions were affected more by visual cues than by weight or energy content. Despite eating a greater volume of lower-ED strawberries, children consumed more energy from the higher-ED pretzels, highlighting the contribution of energy density to children's energy intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food liking can be directly measured in specialised sensory testing facilities; however, this method is not feasible for large population samples. The aim of the study was to compare a Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) against lab-based sensory testing in two countries. The study was conducted with 70 Australian and Thai participants (35 Australian, 35 Thai, mean (SD) age 19 (3.01) years, 51% men). Participants completed a FLQ (consisting of 73 food items Australia, 89 Thai) and then, after tasting the food, rated their liking of a selection of 10 commercially available food items using a nine-point hedonic scale. Both tasks were completed on the same day and were repeated one week later. The reliability of and a comparison between methods was determined using Intra-Class Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test. The results indicate that the test-retest reliability of FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment range was moderate (0.40⁻0.59) to excellent (0.75⁻1.00). There were significant differences for the FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment between countries for three food items: soft drink, instant vegetable soup, and broccoli (p < 0.01). However, the data produced from the FLQ reflects the laboratory-based liking assessment. Therefore, it provides representative liking data in large population-based studies including cross-cultural studies.

Out-of-home catering services frequently offer consumers the opportunity to choose their foods from among different proposals and/or provide consumers with a variety of food. The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of choice and/or variety on food liking and food intake. Fifty-nine normal-weight adults were recruited under the condition that they equally liked three vegetable recipes (green beans with butter, zucchinis with olive oil, spinach with cream). Volunteers participated in four sessions at lunch time. In the no-choice/no-variety condition, volunteers were served one dish randomly selected from among the three. In the no-choice/variety condition, volunteers were served all three dishes. In the choice/no-variety condition, participants chose one dish from among the three dishes. In the choice/variety condition, volunteers chose as many dishes as they desired from among the three dishes. Results showed that providing choice increased vegetable liking and vegetable intake, while offering a variety of vegetables only increased their liking. No synergy effect between choice and variety was observed on vegetable liking and vegetable intake (i.e. the effect in the choice/variety condition was not significantly higher than the effects in no-choice/variety and the choice/no-variety conditions). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire assessing food liking in a French-Canadian population. A questionnaire was developed, in which participants were asked to rate their degree of liking of 50 food items. An expert panel evaluated the content validity. For the validation study, 150 men and women completed the questionnaire twice. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed to assess the number of subscales of the questionnaire. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the subscales were evaluated. Concurrent validity was assessed through correlations between liking scores and self-reported frequencies of consumption. Comments from the experts led to changes in the list of foods included in the questionnaire. The EFA revealed a two-factor structure for the questionnaire (i.e., savory and sweet foods) and led to the removal of nine items, resulting in a 32-item questionnaire. The two subscales revealed good internal consistency (Cronbach alphas: 0.85 and 0.89) and test-retest reliability (p = 0.84 and 0.86). The questionnaire demonstrated adequate concurrent validity, with moderate correlations between food liking and self-reported frequency of consumption (r = 0.19–0.39, ps < 0.05). This new Food Liking Questionnaire assessing liking of a variety of savory and sweet foods demonstrated good psychometric properties in every validation step. This questionnaire will be useful to explore the role of food liking and its interactions with other factors in predicting eating behaviors and energy intake.

• Applying the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis to a study on anorexia nervosa. • Individuals with lifetime prevalence of anorexia nervosa liked meats less than plants and less than non-AN individuals. • The difference in meat and plant liking was not mediated by pathogen disgust sensitivity. • Pathogen disgust sensitivity was associated with lower meat and plant liking. Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is a debilitating mental illness that often leads to expensive treatment costs and poor health outcomes. Previous studies have found that having AN is associated with a vegetarian diet and that anxiety plays a role in food avoidance behavior. There is also some evidence suggesting that disgust could play a role in the course of the disorder. More research is however needed to uncover how disgust relates to food preferences in AN individuals. The present novel study considered whether the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis (CPH) could be a sound theoretical framework for understanding the potential associations between pathogen disgust sensitivity, an individual differences variable that captures dispositional motivations to pathogen-related stimuli, and meat and plant liking in AN individuals. According to the CPH, restricted meat intake may function to reduce pathogen risks when the individual is more susceptible to disease. However, a growing body of evidence has failed to find a relationship between vulnerability to disease and pathogen avoidance. The present study tested the hypothesis that AN relates to pathogen disgust sensitivity. To do so, we examined the associations between pathogen disgust sensitivity, meat liking, plant liking, and a lifetime prevalence of anorexia nervosa (AN-LTP) in a sample of 4,098 Finnish women (402 in the AN-LTP group and 3,696 in the non-AN group). According to results, individuals in the AN-LTP group liked meats less than plants, and less than non-AN individuals. The AN-LTP group liked plants more than the non-AN group. However, the difference in meat and plant liking in AN-LTP vs non-AN individuals was not mediated by pathogen disgust sensitivity. Pathogen disgust sensitivity was associated with lower meat and plant liking in the sample as a whole. Our results did not provide support for the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis, thus adding to the body of evidence that has failed to find a relationship between vulnerability to disease and pathogen avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• In school catering services the preferences of students are usually less considered. • Survey of the students' taste, preference, and opinion could increase the effectiveness of school catering. • The average preference is less variable for preferred food groups. • Questionnaire-based surveys were used to predict real consumption. It is well known that in school catering system the served food rarely will be fully consumed resulting in varying amounts of leftovers, thus part of the food will become waste. This phenomenon significantly decreases the effectiveness of school catering. A key solution would be a better consideration of the students' taste, preference, and opinion. The goal of this research was to assess food liking in secondary schools and explore its relationship with real consumption. Questionnaire-based surveys were conducted in 66 secondary schools where 1973 adolescents (14–18 years) reported their food liking in a five-grade scale. The questionnaire contained 20 food groups. The real consumption was calculated from the weight of returned plate waste. Altogether 3491 plate waste were measured in 66 schools. Interestingly the standard deviations of most liked food groups were relatively lower compared to least liked food groups and the relationship was similar to real consumption data. Namely there is a less variation among consumers when food are better liked and this is also true for consumption. The research also revealed that the questionnaire-based liking scores correlate with real consumption if the number of samples is high enough (more than 50 measured plate) therefore questionnaire-based survey is a useful tool to predict real consumption in a school canteen environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to compare total food intake, total and relative edible plate waste and self-reported food likings between school lunch based on the new Nordic diet (NND) and packed lunch from home. In two 3-month periods in a cluster-randomised controlled unblinded cross-over study 3rd- and 4th-grade children (n 187) from two municipal schools received lunch meals based on NND principles and their usual packed lunch (control). Food intake and plate waste (n 1558) were calculated after weighing lunch plates before and after the meal for five consecutive days and self-reported likings (n 905) assessed by a web-based questionnaire. Average food intake was 6 % higher for the NND period compared with the packed lunch period. The quantity of NND intake varied with the menu (P < 0·0001) and was positively associated with self-reported likings. The edible plate waste was 88 (sd 80) g for the NND period and 43 (sd 60) g for the packed lunch period whereas the relative edible plate waste was no different between periods for meals having waste (n 1050). Edible plate waste differed between menus (P < 0·0001), with more waste on soup days (36 %) and vegetarian days (23 %) compared with the packed lunch period. Self-reported likings were negatively associated with percentage plate waste (P < 0·0001). The study suggests that portion sizes need to be considered in new school meal programmes. New strategies with focus on reduction of plate waste, children's likings and nutritious school meals are crucial from both a nutritional, economic and environmental point of view.