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The mechanisms underlying cell protection from cryoinjury are not yet fully understood. Recent biological studies have addressed cryopreserved cell survival but have not correlated the cryoprotection effectiveness with the impact of cryoprotectants on the most important cell structure, the nucleus, and the freeze/thaw process. We identified changes of cell nuclei states caused by different types of cryoprotectants and associate them with alterations of the freeze/thaw process in cells. Namely, we investigated both higher-order chromatin structure and nuclear envelope integrity as possible markers of freezing and thawing processes. Moreover, we analyzed in detail the relationship between nuclear envelope integrity, chromatin condensation, freeze/thaw processes in cells, and cryopreservation efficiency for dimethyl sulfoxide, glycerol, trehalose, and antifreeze protein. Our interdisciplinary study reveals how changes in cell nuclei induced by cryoprotectants affect the ability of cells to withstand freezing and thawing and how nuclei changes correlate with processes during freezing and thawing. Our results contribute to the deeper fundamental understanding of the freezing processes, notably in the cell nucleus, which will expand the applications and lead to the rational design of cryoprotective materials and protocols.

In this work, we shed new light on the highly debated issue of chromatin fragmentation in cryopreserved cells. Moreover, for the first time, we describe replicating cell-specific DNA damage and higher-order chromatin alterations after freezing and thawing. We identified DNA structural changes associated with the freeze-thaw process and correlated them with the viability of frozen and thawed cells. We simultaneously evaluated DNA defects and the higher-order chromatin structure of frozen and thawed cells with and without cryoprotectant treatment. We found that in replicating (S phase) cells, DNA was preferentially damaged by replication fork collapse, potentially leading to DNA double strand breaks (DSBs), which represent an important source of both genome instability and defects in epigenome maintenance. This induction of DNA defects by the freeze-thaw process was not prevented by any cryoprotectant studied. Both in replicating and non-replicating cells, freezing and thawing altered the chromatin structure in a cryoprotectant-dependent manner. Interestingly, cells with condensed chromatin, which was strongly stimulated by dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) prior to freezing had the highest rate of survival after thawing. Our results will facilitate the design of compounds and procedures to decrease injury to cryopreserved cells.

Bleomycins are antitumor antibiotics that can chelate a metal center and cause site-specific DNA cleavage at 5'-Gpyrimidine-3' regions of DNA. These antibiotics are successful in the treatment of various cancers, but are known to cause pulmonary fibrosis to patients under bleomycin regimes. Substantial research has resulted in the development of over 300 bleomycin analogs, aiming to improve the therapeutic index of the drug. Previous studies have proposed that the lung toxicity caused by bleomycin is related to the C-terminal regions of these drugs, which have been shown to closely interact with DNA in metal-bleomycin-DNA complexes. Some of the research studying metallo-bleomycin-DNA interactions have suggested three different binding modes of the metal form of the drug to DNA, including total and/or partial intercalation, and minor groove binding. However, there is still lack of consensus regarding this matter, and solid conclusions on the subject have not yet been established. Previously we investigated the diverse levels of disruption caused to DNA hairpins containing 5'-GC-3' and 5'-GT-3' binding sites, which are consequence of the binding of bleomycins with different C-termini. The results of these investigation indicate that both the DNA-binding site and the bleomycin C-termini have an impact on the final conformations of drug and target. The present study focuses on the structural alterations exhibited by Zn(II)bleomycin-A 2 , -B 2 , -A 5 and Zn(II)peplomycin upon binding to DNA hairpins containing 5'-GC-3' and 5'-GT-3' binding sites. Evidence that each Zn(II)bleomycin is structurally affected depending on both its C-terminus and the DNA-binding site present in the hairpin is provided., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Bleomycins are a group of glycopeptide antibiotics synthesized by Streptomyces verticillus that are widely used for the treatment of various neoplastic diseases. These antibiotics have the ability to chelate a metal center, mainly Fe(II), and cause site-specific DNA cleavage. Bleomycins are differentiated by their C-terminal regions. Although this antibiotic family is a successful course of treatment for some types of cancers, it is known to cause pulmonary fibrosis. Previous studies have identified that bleomycin-related pulmonary toxicity is linked to the C-terminal region of these drugs. This region has been shown to closely interact with DNA. We examined the binding of Zn(II)peplomycin and Zn(II)bleomycin-A 2 to a DNA hairpin of sequence 5'-CCAGTATTTTTACTGG-3', containing the binding site 5'-GT-3', and compared the results with those obtained from our studies of the same MBLMs bound to a DNA hairpin containing the binding site 5'-GC-3'. We provide evidence that the DNA base sequence has a strong impact in the final structure of the drug-target complex.

The antibiotics known as bleomycins constitute a family of natural products clinically employed for the treatment of a wide spectrum of cancers. The drug acts as an antitumor agent by virtue of the ability of a metal complex of the antibiotic to cleave DNA. Bleomycins are differentiated by their C-terminal regions. Previous structural studies involving metal-bleomycin-DNA triads have allowed the identification of the bithiazole-(C-terminus substituent) segment in this molecule as the one that most closely interacts with DNA. Three different modes of binding of metallo-bleomycins to DNA (partial or total intercalation of the bithiazole unit between DNA bases, or binding to the minor groove) have been proposed in the literature. The therapeutic use of bleomycin is frequently associated with the development of pulmonary fibrosis. The severity of this side effect has been attributed to the C-terminus of the antibiotic by some researchers. The degree of pulmonary toxicity of bleomycin-A 2 and -A 5 , were found to be higher than those of bleomycin-B 2 and peplomycin. Since the introduction of Blenoxane to clinical medicine in 1972, attempts have been made at modifying the basic bleomycin structure at the C-terminus to improve its therapeutic index. However, the pharmacological and toxicological importance of particular C-termini on bleomycin remains unclear. The present study was designed to determine the effect of Zn(II)bleomycin-A 2 , -A 5 , -B 2 , and Zn(II)peplomycin on the structure of a DNA hairpin containing the 5'-GC-3' binding site. We provide evidence that different Zn(II)bleomycins affect the structure of the tested DNA segment in different fashions.

In this work the physico-chemical properties of selected cryoprotectants (antifreeze protein TrxA-AFP752, trehalose and dimethyl sulfoxide) were correlated with their impact on the constitution of ice and influence on frozen/thawed cell viability. The freezing processes and states of investigated materials solutions were described and explained from a fundamental point of view using ab-initio modelling (molecular dynamics, DFT), Raman spectroscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimetry and X-Ray Diffraction. For the first time, in this work we correlated the microscopic view (modelling) with the description of the frozen solution states and put these results in the context of human skin fibroblast viability after freezing and thawing. DMSO and AFP had different impacts on their solution's freezing process but in both cases the ice crystallinity size was considerably reduced. DMSO and AFP treatment in different ways improved the viability of frozen/thawed cells.

Ionic liquids have great potential in biological applications and biocatalysis, as some ionic liquids can stabilize proteins and enhance enzyme activity, while others have the opposite effect. However, on the molecular level, probing ionic liquid interactions with proteins, especially in solutions containing high concentration of ionic liquids, has been challenging. In the present work the 13 C, 15 N-enriched GB1 model protein was used to demonstrate applicability of high-resolution magic-angle-spinning (HR-MAS) NMR spectroscopy to investigate ionic liquid - protein interactions. Effect of an ionic liquid (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide, [C 4 -mim]Br) on GB1was studied over a wide range of the ionic liquid concentrations (0.6 to 3.5 M, which corresponds to 10%-60% v/v). Interactions between GB1 and [C 4 -mim]Br were observed from changes in the chemical shifts of the protein backbone as well as the changes in 15 N ps-ns dynamics and rotational correlation times. Site-specific interactions between the protein and [C 4 -mim]Br were assigned using 3D methods under HR-MAS conditions. Thus, HR-MAS NMR is a viable tool that could aid in elucidation of the molecular mechanism of ionic liquid - protein interactions.

Despite their relative simplicity, bacteria have complex anatomy at the subcellular level. At the cell poles of Caulobacter crescentus, a 177-amino acid (aa) protein called PopZ self-assembles into 3D polymeric superstructures. Remarkably, we find that this assemblage interacts directly with at least eight different proteins, which are involved in cell cycle regulation and chromosome segregation. The binding determinants within PopZ include 24 aa at the N terminus, a 32-aa region near the C-terminal homo-oligomeric assembly domain, and portions of an intervening linker region. Together, the N-terminal 133 aa of PopZ are sufficient for interacting with all binding partners, even in the absence of homo-oligomeric assembly. Structural analysis of this region revealed that it is intrinsically disordered, similar to p53 and other hub proteins that organize complex signaling networks in eukaryotic cells. Through live-cell photobleaching, we find rapid binding kinetics between PopZ and its partners, suggesting many pole-localized proteins become concentrated at cell poles through rapid cycles of binding and unbinding within the PopZ scaffold. We conclude that some bacteria, similar to their eukaryotic counterparts, use intrinsically disordered hub proteins for network assembly and subcellular organization., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Low-temperature condensed phase reactions of atomic hydrogen with closed-shell molecules have been studied in rare gas matrices as a way to generate unstable chemical intermediates and to study tunneling-driven chemistry. Although parahydrogen (pH2) matrix isolation spectroscopy allows these reactions to be studied equally well, little is known about the analogous reactions conducted in a pH2 matrix host. In this study, we present Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic studies of the 193 nm photoinduced chemistry of formic acid (HCOOH) isolated in a pH2 matrix over the 1.7 to 4.3 K temperature range. Upon short-term irradiation the HCOOH readily undergoes photolysis to yield CO, CO2, HOCO, HCO and H atoms. Furthermore, after photolysis at 1.9 K tunneling reactions between migrating H atoms and trapped HCOOH and CO continue to produce HOCO and HCO, respectively. A series of postphotolysis kinetic experiments at 1.9 K with varying photolysis conditions and initial HCOOH concentrations show the growth of HOCO consistently follows single exponential (k = 4.9(7)x10(-3) min(-1)) growth kinetics. The HCO growth kinetics is more complex displaying single exponential growth under certain conditions, but also biexponential growth at elevated CO concentrations and longer photolysis exposures. By varying the temperature after photolysis, we show the H atom reaction kinetics qualitatively change at ∼2.7 K; the reaction that produces HOCO stops at higher temperatures and is only observed at low temperature. We rationalize these results using a kinetic mechanism that involves formation of an H···HCOOH prereactive complex. This study clearly identifies anomalous temperature effects in the reaction kinetics of H atoms with HCOOH and CO in solid pH2 that deserve further study and await full quantitative theoretical modeling.

We present low temperature kinetic measurements for the H + N2O association reaction in solid parahydrogen (pH2) at liquid helium temperatures (1-5 K). We synthesize (15)N2(18)O doped pH2 solids via rapid vapor deposition onto an optical substrate attached to the cold tip of a liquid helium bath cryostat. We then subject the solids to short duration 193 nm irradiations to generate H-atoms produced as byproducts of the in situ N2O photodissociation, and monitor the subsequent reaction kinetics using rapid scan FTIR. For reactions initiated in solid pH2 at 4.3 K we observe little to no reaction; however, if we then slowly reduce the temperature of the solid we observe an abrupt onset to the H + N2O → cis-HNNO reaction at temperatures below 2.4 K. This abrupt change in the reaction kinetics is fully reversible as the temperature of the solid pH2 is repeatedly cycled. We speculate that the observed non-Arrhenius behavior (negative activation energy) is related to the stability of the pre-reactive complex between the H-atom and (15)N2(18)O reagents.