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This visualization illustrates patterns of income pooling among German couples using longitudinal data from the German Family Panel (pairfam), examining variations across cohorts born in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s and among different partnership types. The findings reveal that marriage is much more strongly associated with income pooling than cohabitation or living-apart-together arrangements. A generational shift is evident: Younger cohorts are less likely to pool finances, even within marriage. The visualization suggests increasing financial independence in intimate relationships over cohorts, reflecting broader societal shifts toward individualism.

Abstract Polymer‐coated nanoparticles are widely studied in the context of nanomedicine and it is therefore of utmost importance to understand not only how their structure but also how their colloidal dynamics are affected by physiologically relevant conditions. A characteristic feature of the cytosol of cells is the very high concentration of proteins among other matrix components, often termed macromolecular crowding. Here, the structure and colloidal dynamics of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)‐coated gold nanoparticles in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA) concentrations ranging from 0 to 265 mg/mL are studied with X‐ray photon correlation spectroscopy. For protein–nanoparticle mixtures with high BSA concentrations, comparable to intracellular levels, a significant deviation of the apparent viscosity from expectations for pure BSA solutions is found. The findings strongly indicate that the nanoscopic viscous properties of the dense protein solutions are significantly affected by the nanoparticles. At these high concentrations, the colloidal stability of the samples depends on the molecular weight of the coating PEG–ligand, whereas at lower concentrations no differences are observed.

One of the outstanding analytical problems in X-ray single-particle imaging (SPI) is the classification of structural heterogeneity, which is especially difficult given the low signal-to-noise ratios of individual patterns and the fact that even identical objects can yield patterns that vary greatly when orientation is taken into consideration. Proposed here are two methods which explicitly account for this orientation-induced variation and can robustly determine the structural landscape of a sample ensemble. The first, termed common-line principal component analysis (PCA), provides a rough classification which is essentially parameter free and can be run automatically on any SPI dataset. The second method, utilizing variation auto-encoders (VAEs), can generate 3D structures of the objects at any point in the structural landscape. Both these methods are implemented in combination with the noise-tolerant expand–maximize–compress (EMC) algorithm and its utility is demonstrated by applying it to an experimental dataset from gold nanoparticles with only a few thousand photons per pattern. Both discrete structural classes and continuous deformations are recovered. These developments diverge from previous approaches of extracting reproducible subsets of patterns from a dataset and open up the possibility of moving beyond the study of homogeneous sample sets to addressing open questions on topics such as nanocrystal growth and dynamics, as well as phase transitions which have not been externally triggered.

Chirality is known to impact the biological activity of materials but concentration differences can often lead to errors in analysis. Here, the authors report on detailed concertation analysis of different chiral carbon nanodots to accurately investigate chiral effects on the protein absorption and cell internalisation.

This study focuses on the effect of portable and large filter-based air cleaners (HEPA filters), which became popular indoors during the COVID-19 pandemic, and their suitability for classrooms (here 186 m3). The decay rates of the particle number concentration (PNC) were measured simultaneously at up to four positions in the room. It was found that the different air outlet configurations of the units have an effect on the actual PNC removal in the room when operated at the same volume flow rates. This effect of the airflow efficiency of the air cleaners (AP) in a classroom is quantified with an introduced Air Cleaning Efficiency Factor in this study to identify beneficial airflows. In this context, the effect of filter loading in long-term operation on the cleaning effect is also investigated. The emitted sound pressure levels of the APs are given special attention as this is a critical factor for use in schools, as well as power consumption. A total of six different devices were tested—two portable APs and four large APs. In order to achieve the necessary volume flow rates, three or four of the portable units were used simultaneously in one room, while only one of the large units was used per room. When used at the same air circulation rates in the room, the portable APs exhibit higher sound pressure levels compared to the large APs. At air circulation rates of 4–5 h−1, the portable APs exceeded a value of 45 dB(A). Two of the four large units reach sound pressure levels below 40 dB(A) at air circulation rates of 4–5 h−1, whereby both large units, which are positioned on the rear wall, realize a homogeneous dilution of the room air. This is achieved by an air outlet directed horizontally at a height above 2 m or diagonally towards the ceiling, which points into the room and partly to the sides. On the other hand, an air outlet directed exclusively to the sides or horizontally into the room at floor level to all sides achieves lower particle decay rates. To investigate the influence of the filter loading, three large APs were operated in a school for a period of one year (190 days with 8 h each). For the three APs, long-term operation leads to different changes in PNC reduction efficiency, ranging from −3% to −34%. It is found that not only the size of the prefilter and main filter has a significant influence, but also whether there is a prefilter bypass that negatively affects the loading level of the main filter. At the same time, it was shown that one type of AP, measuring the pressure drop across the filters and readjusting the fan, kept the circulation rate almost constant (up to −3%) over a year.

The risk of COVID-19 infection from virulent aerosols is particularly high indoors. This is especially true for classrooms, which often do not have pre-installed ventilation and are occupied by a large number of students at the same time. It has been found that precautionary measures, such as the use of air purifiers (AP), physical distancing, and the wearing of masks, can reduce the risk of infection. To quantify the actual effect of precautions, it is not possible in experimental studies to expose subjects to virulent aerosols. Therefore, in this study, we develop a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model to evaluate the impact of applying the aforementioned precautions in classrooms on reducing aerosol concentration and potential exposure in the presence of index or infected patients. A CFD-coupled Wells–Riley model is used to quantify the infection probability (IP) in the presence of index patients. Different cases are simulated by varying the occupancy of the room (half/full), the volumetric flow rate of the AP, two different locations of the AP, and the effect of wearing masks. The results suggest that using an AP reduces the spread of virulent aerosols and thereby reduces the risk of infection. However, the risk of the person sitting adjacent to the index patient is only marginally reduced and can be avoided with the half capacity of the class (physical distancing method) or by wearing face masks of high efficiencies.

X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) is a routine technique to study slow dynamics in complex systems at storage-ring sources. Achieving nanosecond time resolution with the conventional XPCS technique is, however, still an experimentally challenging task requiring fast detectors and sufficient photon flux. Here, the result of a nanosecond XPCS study of fast colloidal dynamics is shown by employing an adaptive gain integrating pixel detector (AGIPD) operated at frame rates of the intrinsic pulse structure of the storage ring. Correlation functions from single-pulse speckle patterns with the shortest correlation time of 192 ns have been calculated. These studies provide an important step towards routine fast XPCS studies at storage rings.

Superlattices of nanoparticles promise new properties emerging from the periodic order. Here, the authors describe the synthesis of superlattices of plasmonic gold nanoparticles with high crystallinity and demonstrate how new plasmon-polariton modes appear in the structures.

BackgroundPatients with cancer and their relatives often suffer from psychosocial burdens following a cancer diagnosis. Psychosocial cancer support services offer support for cancer patients and their relatives. Only a few studies have focused on associations of psychological factors within patient-relative dyads. This study aims to assess associations between the patients' or relatives' self-efficacy and their levels of distress and anxiety who seek help together at psychosocial cancer support centres.MethodsParticipants were recruited at two psychosocial cancer support centres in a major city in Germany. Patients with cancer and their relatives seeking support together received the questionnaire before their first support session. Self-efficacy was assessed with the Pearlin sense of mastery scale, distress with the distress thermometer and anxiety with the General Anxiety Disorder questionnaire (GAD-7). For the analysis, the actor-partner interdependence model was applied.ResultsThe data analysis was based on 41 patient-relative dyads (patients: 39% women, mean age 53.5; relatives: 66% women, mean age 52.16). A significant actor effect from self-efficacy to distress was found for patients (r = -0.47) but not for relatives (r = -0.15). Partner effects from self-efficacy to distress were not significant (r = -0.03, r = -0.001). The actor effect from self-efficacy to anxiety for patients (r = -0.61) as well as relatives was significant (r = -0.62), whereas the partner effect was significant for patients (r = 0.16) but not for relatives (r = -0.46).ConclusionThe results suggest that patients' and relatives' self-efficacy is associated with their distress and anxiety. Partner effects were visible for patients' self-efficacy and relatives' anxiety. These findings suggest that self-efficacy is an important factor for the psychological well-being of patients and relatives and that it may additionally be associated with the partners' well-being. Longitudinal research with larger samples is needed to support the findings.

Objective: This study measured and compared the attitudes of German women and men towards sharing total housework, routine housework and non-routine housework in couples. Background: Although attitudes towards gender roles and the notion of separate spheres are important for understanding many aspects of family life, knowledge about situational variations of women’s and men’s attitudes towards housework sharing is limited. Method: Original data from a factorial survey of 1,120 German women and men from 2016 were used to describe variations in the attitudes of women and men towards three sets of housework using multilevel regression models. Results: Women and men expressed their attitudes towards equal sharing of total and routine housework, but non-routine housework was assigned to male partners in couples. Attitudes differed widely according to the context of the couple: In couples with similar economic resources, respondents favored equal sharing of housework, and in couples with unequal arrangements, the partner with fewer resources was tied to more housework and vice versa. Conclusion: When evaluating housework responsibilities, women and men in this study seemed to follow the principles of equity and balanced exchange.

We report on the self-assembly of gold nanoparticles coated with a soft poly(ethylene glycol) shell studied by X-ray cross-correlation analysis. Depending on the initial concentration of gold nanoparticles used, structurally heterogeneous films were formed. The films feature hot spots of dominating four- and sixfold local order with patch sizes of a few micrometres, containing 104–105 particles. The amplitude of the order parameters suggested that a minimum sample amount was necessary to form well ordered local structures. Furthermore, the increasing variation in order parameters with sample thickness demonstrated a high degree of structural heterogeneity. This wealth of information cannot be obtained by the conventional microscopy techniques that are commonly used to study nanocrystal superstructures, as illustrated by complementary scanning electron microscopy measurements.

Knowledge about gender convergence in housework time is confined to changes studied across repeated cross-sections of data. This study adds a dynamic view that links broader social shifts in men’s and women’s housework time to individual life-course profiles. Using panel data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (1985–2015), our analysis is the first to trace changes in housework time across the entire adult life course (ages 20–90) and across a large range of cohorts (1920–1990). The results revealed two types of gender convergence in housework time. First, the gender gap converged across the life course, narrowing by more than 50 percent from age 35 until age 70. Life-course profiles of housework time were strongly gendered, as women's housework time peaked in younger adulthood and declined thereafter, whereas men’s housework time remained stably low for decades and increased only in older age. Second, the gender gap converged across cohorts, narrowing by 40 percent from cohorts 1940 until 1960. Cohort profiles of housework time showed strong declines in women and moderate increases in men. Both cohort trends were linear and extended to the most recently born, supporting the notion of continued convergence in housework time.

While the toxicity of metal-based nanoparticles (NP) has been investigated in an increasing number of studies, little is known about metal-based fibrous materials, so-called nanowires (NWs). Within the present study, the physico-chemical properties of particulate and fibrous nanomaterials based on Cu, CuO, Ni, and Ag as well as TiO2 and CeO2 NP were characterized and compared with respect to abiotic metal ion release in different physiologically relevant media as well as acellular reactivity. While none of the materials was soluble at neutral pH in artificial alveolar fluid (AAF), Cu, CuO, and Ni-based materials displayed distinct dissolution under the acidic conditions found in artificial lysosomal fluids (ALF and PSF). Subsequently, four different cell lines were applied to compare cytotoxicity as well as intracellular metal ion release in the cytoplasm and nucleus. Both cytotoxicity and bioavailability reflected the acellular dissolution rates in physiological lysosomal media (pH 4.5); only Ag-based materials showed no or very low acellular solubility, but pronounced intracellular bioavailability and cytotoxicity, leading to particularly high concentrations in the nucleus. In conclusion, in spite of some quantitative differences, the intracellular bioavailability as well as toxicity is mostly driven by the respective metal and is less modulated by the shape of the respective NP or NW.

Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) has reached nanometer spatial resolution for measurements performed at ambient conditions and subnanometer resolution at ultrahigh vacuum. Super-resolution (beyond the tip apex diameter) TERS has been obtained mostly in the gap mode configuration, where a conductive substrate localizes the electric fields. Here we present experimental and theoretical TERS to explore the field distribution responsible for spectral enhancement. We use gold tips of 40±10nm apex diameter to measure TERS on graphene, a spatially delocalized two-dimensional sample, sitting on different substrates: (i) glass, (ii) a thin layer of gold and (iii) a surface covered with 12nm diameter gold spheres, for which 6nm resolution is achieved at ambient conditions. The super-resolution is due to the field configuration resulting from the coupled tip-sample-substrate system, exhibiting a nontrivial spatial surface distribution. The field distribution and the symmetry selection rules are different for nongap versus gap mode configurations. This influences the overall enhancement which depends on the Raman mode symmetry and substrate structure.

Educational expansion, the massive increase of women’s labor force participation, and assortative mating have reduced asymmetries in educational achievements and in career resources between women and men in virtually every Western society. This paper provides an analysis of the association between partners’ education, parenthood, and spouses’ relative labor supply in East and West Germany. Education is considered from two angles: as an indicator for resources on the labor market or as an indicator for gender attitudes. We apply cross-sectional data from the 2011 German Microcensus, comprising 57,366 couple households. For our estimations, we use General Linear Models. Because of high case numbers, we are able to estimate several interaction effects in statistical powerful detail. We find that (1) a woman’s share of paid work is higher, the higher she is educated; (2) women with higher education than their male partners realize higher shares of relative employment (in comparison to other women); (3) women rarely realize a share of 50% or higher on average in any educational composition; (4) especially young children have a huge impact on women’s labor supply; and (5) women’s comparative educational advantages are more important for their share of paid work in West than in East Germany. Neither interpretation of relative education can explain the overall picture of couples’ division of paid work alone. Depending on parenthood, the age of the youngest child in the household, and the regional context, either normative, or economic exchanges between partners seem to drive the association between relative education, and relative labor supply of women. We demonstrate the usefulness of two theoretical approaches of framing education as an explanatory concept. Zusammenfassung Entwicklungen wie die Bildungsexpansion, die zunehmende Arbeitsmarktbeteiligung von Frauen sowie die Homophilie in der Partnerwahl haben bestehende Bildungsasymmetrien zwischen Männern und Frauen in westlichen Gesellschaften deutlich reduziert. Der vorliegende Beitrag liefert für Ost- und West-Deutschland eine Analyse des Zusammenhangs zwischen der Bildung der Partner, deren Elternschaft sowie deren Erwerbsanteilen im Paar. Relative Bildung kann hierbei sowohl als Indikator für Arbeitsmarktressourcen als auch für Geschlechtsrolleneinstellungen interpretiert werden. Die Analysen basieren auf den Daten des deutschen Mikrozensus 2011 mit insgesamt 57.366 Paarhaushalten. Für die Schätzung der weiblichen Erwerbsanteile werden Allgemeine Lineare Modelle herangezogen. Aufgrund der hohen Fallzahl ist die Berücksichtigung von Interaktionseffekten möglich. Die Befunde zeigen, dass (1) der Erwerbsanteil von Frauen umso höher ist, je höher ihr eigenes Bildungsniveaus ist; (2) Frauen, die einen höheren Bildungsabschluss als ihr Mann aufweisen, zeigen im Vergleich zu anderen Frauen die höchsten Erwerbsanteile; (3) Unabhängig von der relativen Bildung im Paar erreichen Frauen im Durchschnitt in aller Regel keinen Erwerbsanteil von 50%; (4) Vor allem junge Kinder zeigen einen großen Einfluss auf den Zusammenhang zwischen relativer Bildung und relativer Erwerbsbeteiligung; (5) Bildungsvorsprünge von Frauen gegenüber ihren Partnern sind für ihre Erwerbsanteile in West-Deutschland von höherer Bedeutung als in Ostdeutschland. Keine der beiden Interpretationen von Bildung erklärt allein die Aufteilung der Erwerbsarbeit im Paar. Je nach Präsenz und Alter des jüngsten Kindes sowie dem regionalen Kontext trägt die ökonomische oder wertorientierte Perspektive mehr oder weniger stark zur Erklärung des Arbeitsarrangements bei. Dabei konnten wir auf die Nützlichkeit der zwei theoretischen Rahmungen von Bildung als erklärendes Modell hinweisen.

This study updates empirical knowledge about the development,(the educational stratification, and the decomposition of mothers’ and fathers’ childcare time in Germany with the most recent time use data. Using time series data from the German Time Use Study 2001/2002 and 2012/ 2013, we analyze time budgets for total childcare and six specific childcare activities on weekdays and weekends and estimate OLS regressions and Oaxaca decompositions. The study found that total childcare time has increased for mothers and fathers between 2001 and 2013 and that this change is predominantly due to increased time for basic childcare. It also found consistent evidence of an education gradient only for reading time with children. If there is significant change of time budgets between 2001 and 2013, this change seems to be driven by behavioral change rather than changing demographics. Our empirical findings on childcare time in Germany do not provide evidence of dynamics and stratification but rather of stability and similarity across parents’ educational levels. Besides the updates on German parents’ development, stratification and decomposition of time use for childcare, these analyses show that change in total childcare is not due to a proportional change over all single activities but due to changes in a few activities only. Zusammenfassung Diese Studie aktualisiert das empirische Wissen über die Entwicklung, die Bildungsstratifizierung und die Dekomposition der Zeitverwendung von Müttern und Vätern für Kinderbetreuung mit den aktuellen Zeitbudgetdaten für Deutschland. Auf Basis der der letzten beiden Erhebungen der Deutschen Zeitverwendungsstudie 2001/2002 und 2012/2013 werden die Zeitbudgets für die Gesamtzeit für Kinderbetreuung sowie sechs Einzeltätigkeiten mit OLS-Regressionen und Oaxaca- Dekompositionen untersucht. Die Studie zeigt, dass die Zeit für Kinderbetreuung von Müttern und Vätern zwischen 2001 und 2013 angestiegen ist, es einen Bildungsgradienten für Vorlesen gibt und signifikante Veränderungen in den Zeitbudgets nicht auf Kompositionsveränderung der Bevölkerung zurückgeführt werden können. Insgesamt belegt die Studie weniger die Dynamik als vielmehr die Stabilität und die geringe Bildungsdifferenzierung der Zeitverwendung für Kinderbetreuung. Darüber hinaus wird gezeigt, dass die Veränderungen in der Gesamtzeit für Kinderbetreuung nicht auf proportionale Veränderungen in allen, sondern nur auf Veränderungen in wenigen Einzeltätigkeiten zurückgeführt werden können.

Aquatic environments are heavily impacted by human activities including climate warming and the introduction of xenobiotics. Due to the application of silver nanoparticles as bactericidal agent the introduction of silver into the environment strongly has increased during the past years. Silver ions affect the primary metabolism of algae, in particular photosynthesis. Mixotrophic algae are an interesting test case as they do not exclusively rely on photosynthesis which may attenuate the harmful effect of silver. In order to study the effect of silver ions on mixotrophs, cultures of the chrysophyte Poterioochromonas malhamensis were treated in a replicate design in light and darkness with silver nitrate at a sub-lethal concentration. At five time points samples were taken for the identification and quantitation of proteins by mass spectrometry. In our analysis, relative quantitative protein mass spectrometry has shown to be a useful tool for functional analyses in conjunction with transcriptome reference sequences. A total of 3,952 proteins in 63 samples were identified and quantified, mapping to 4,829 transcripts of the sequenced and assembled transcriptome. Among them, 720 and 104 proteins performing various cellular functions were differentially expressed after eight days in light versus darkness and after three days of silver treatment, respectively. Specifically pathways of the energy and primary carbon metabolism were differentially affected by light and the utilization of expensive reactions hints to an energy surplus of P. malhamensis under light conditions. The excess energy is not invested in growth, but in the synthesis of storage metabolites. The effects of silver were less explicit, observable especially in the dark treatments where the light effect could not mask coinciding but weaker effects of silver. Photosynthesis, particularly the light harvesting complexes, and several sulphur containing enzymes were affected presumably due to a direct interference with the silver ions, mainly affecting energy supply.

Active Galactic Nuclei emit radiation over the whole electromagnetic spectrum up to TeV energies. Blazars are one subtype with their jets pointing towards the observer. One of their typical features is extreme variability on timescales, from minutes to years. The fractional variability is an often used parameter for investigating the degree of variability of a light curve. Different detection methods and sensitivities of the instruments result in differently binned data and light curves with gaps. As they can influence the physics interpretation of the broadband variability, the effects of these differences on the fractional variability need to be studied. In this paper, we study the systematic effects of completeness in time coverage and the sampling rate. Using public data from instruments monitoring blazars in various energy ranges, we study the variability of the bright TeV blazars Mrk 421 and Mrk 501 over the electromagnetic spectrum, taking into account the systematic effects, and compare our findings with previous results. Especially in the TeV range, the fractional variability is higher than in previous studies, which can be explained by the much longer (seven years compared to few weeks) and more complete data sample.

Blazars are known to show variability on time scales from minutes to years covering a wide range of flux states. Studying the flux distribution of a source allows for various insights. The shape of the flux distribution can provide information on the nature of the underlying variability processes. The level of a possible quiescent state can be derived from the main part of the distribution that can be described by a Gaussian distribution. Dividing the flux states into quiescent and active, the duty cycle of a source can be calculated. Finally, this allows alerting the multi-wavelength and multi-messenger community in case a source is in an active state. To get consistent and conclusive results from flux distributions, unbiased long-term observations are crucial. Only like this is a complete picture of the variability and flux states, e.g., an all-time quiescent state, possible. In seven years of monitoring of bright TeV blazars, the first G-APD Cherenkov telescope (FACT) has collected a total of more than 11,700 hours of physics data with 1500 hours to 3000 hours per source for Mrk 421, Mrk 501, 1ES 1959+650, and 1ES 2344+51.

Sensors integrated into objects of everyday life potentially allow unobtrusive health monitoring at home. However, since the coupling of sensors and subject is not as well-defined as compared to a clinical setting, the signal quality is much more variable and can be disturbed significantly by motion artifacts. One way of tackling this challenge is the combined evaluation of multiple channels via sensor fusion. For robust and accurate sensor fusion, analyzing the influence of motion on different modalities is crucial. In this work, a multimodal sensor setup integrated into an armchair is presented that combines capacitively coupled electrocardiography, reflective photoplethysmography, two high-frequency impedance sensors and two types of ballistocardiography sensors. To quantify motion artifacts, a motion protocol performed by healthy volunteers is recorded with a motion capture system, and reference sensors perform cardiorespiratory monitoring. The shape-based signal-to-noise ratio SNR S is introduced and used to quantify the effect on motion on different sensing modalities. Based on this analysis, an optimal combination of sensors and fusion methodology is developed and evaluated. Using the proposed approach, beat-to-beat heart-rate is estimated with a coverage of 99.5% and a mean absolute error of 7.9 ms on 425 min of data from seven volunteers in a proof-of-concept measurement scenario.

This paper examines the changes in the division of housework over the course of relationships, first providing a detailed and comprehensive overview of the current status of longitudinal research on the subject matter. The findings available to date, revealing a largely gendered division of labor among German couples, were then confirmed using pairfam data and fixed-effects panel regression models: routine household tasks, such as cooking, cleaning, and doing laundry, remain predominantly “women’s work”. This division of housework is reinforced considerably with the transition to parenthood. Furthermore, effects of the couples’ levels of education and the women’s labor market participation could be illustrated in accordance with well-established theories. In conclusion, we suggest that this current state of knowledge can highly benefit from qualitative longitudinal studies, allowing for a detailed representation of new contextual dimensions such as attitudes towards gender roles, socialization experiences or negotiation processes among couples. Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag untersucht die Veränderung der Hausarbeitsteilung im Partnerschaftsverlauf und gibt hierfür zunächst einen ausführlichen und umfassenden Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der Längsschnittforschung. Eigene Panelregressionsmodelle mit fixen Effekten auf Basis der pairfam-Daten bestätigen die bisher bekannten Befunde, dass in Deutschland eine weitgehend geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung in Paaren vorliegt: Haushaltsroutinen wie Kochen, Putzen und Wäsche machen liegen überwiegend im Zuständigkeitsbereich der Frauen. Der Übergang zur Elternschaft verstärkt diese Hausarbeitsteilung deutlich. Darüber hinaus konnten Effekte des Bildungsniveaus im Paar und der Erwerbstätigkeit der Frau gezeigt werden, die im Einklang mit den gängigen Theorien stehen. Wir schließen mit der These, dass dieser Erkenntnisstand vor allem durch qualitative Längsschnittstudien erweitert werden kann, weil dadurch neue inhaltliche Dimensionen wie beispielsweise Einstellungen zu den Geschlechterrollen, Sozialisationserfahrungen oder Aushandlungsprozesse in Paaren detailliert abgebildet werden können.

This paper analyzes the association between the duration of maternity leave and the division of housework, using a representative sample of Bavarian mothers who gave birth to their first child in 2007 under the new parenting benefit policy of the German federal government. The results show that mothers re-entering the labor market after a maximum break of 12 months after accouchement, which is in accordance with the intention of the parenting benefit policy, report more egalitarian housework arrangements than mothers with longer employment breaks. Yet, all women report a rather traditional division of labor with a relatively low contribution of their partners. Our finding that women who are highly educated and disapprove of traditional family roles report more egalitarian housework patterns is in line with previous research. Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag untersucht, ob unterschiedlich lange Erwerbsunterbrechungen von Müttern nach dem Übergang zur Erstelternschaft einen Einfluss auf die Aufteilung der Hausarbeit in Paarbeziehungen haben. Für die empirischen Analysen werden Daten einer repräsentativen Querschnittstudie über bayerische Mütter verwendet, die im Jahr 2007 ihr erstes Kind bekamen und für die damit das neue Elterngeldgesetz der Bundesregierung galt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Mütter, die frühzeitig den Wiedereinstieg in den Beruf realisieren und entsprechend den Anreizen des neuen Elterngeldgesetzes maximal für ein Jahr ihre Erwerbstätigkeit unterbrechen, ein partnerschaftlicheres Modell der Arbeitsteilung im Haushalt praktizieren als Mütter, die eine längere berufliche Pause einlegen. Dennoch ist nach wie vor ein traditionell ausgerichtetes Rollenmodell bei den untersuchten Paaren dominant, so dass sich der Beitrag der Väter zur Hausarbeit insgesamt auf einem niedrigen Niveau bewegt. Im Einklang mit anderen Studien steht der Befund, dass eine hohe Bildung und eine Abkehr von traditionellen Einstellungen eine partnerschaftlichere Hausarbeitsteilung begünstigen.

This paper seeks to identify, who is using online dating sites in Germany. Theoretically, it is drawn on the debate about the digital divide of society and the findings of sociological mate selection research. Several hypotheses are presented on how individuals using internet dating vary in socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. These considerations are then tested empirically, using the data of the ARD/ZDF-Online Study 2007, a representative national sample of internet behaviour in Germany. Compared to the total population, the results show that online daters are rather male, younger, higher educated and live in households with a higher income. Compared to all internet users, online daters are also rather male, younger and living in single households; however, lower educated individuals are slightly overrepresented. Our work contributes to the research by showing that the propensity of men and women to participate in online dating depends on their individual perspectives at the marriage market. Particularly higher educated women and lower educated men belong to those groups that try to extend their pool of partners by using dating sites. Zusammenfassung Der Aufsatz stellt die Frage, wer in Deutschland die Möglichkeit der internetgestützten Partnersuche nutzt. Ausgehend von der Debatte um digitale Ungleichheiten werden in Auseinandersetzung mit den Erkenntnissen der soziologischen Partnerwahlforschung theoretische Hypothesen formuliert, nach welchen sozialstrukturellen Merkmalen die Teilnahme am Onlinedating variiert. Diese Überlegungen werden auf Basis der Daten der ARD/ZDF-Onlinestudie 2007, einer für Deutschland repräsentativen Erhebung zur Internetnutzung, empirisch geprüft. Verglichen mit der Gesamtbevölkerung zeigt sich, dass die Onlinedater eher männlich, jünger und höher gebildet sind, sowie tendenziell in Haushalten mit höherem Einkommen leben. Verglichen mit den Internetnutzern sind die Onlinedater wiederum eher männlich, jünger und alleinwohnend; allerdings sind hier niedriger gebildete Personen leicht überrepräsentiert. In Erweiterung zu früheren Untersuchungen zeigen unsere Ergebnisse, dass die Neigung von Männern und Frauen, am Onlinedating teilzunehmen, von ihren jeweiligen Perspektiven am Heiratsmarkt abhängig ist. Vor allem höher gebildete Frauen und niedrig gebildete Männer gehören dabei zu den Gruppen, die durch die Nutzung von Online-Kontaktbörsen ihre Partnersuche ausweiten.

Ein Vergleich der Ergebnisse von Zeitverwendungstagebüchern und Zeitschätzungen lässt Zweifel an der bislang aufrecht erhaltenen Annahme aufkommen, beide Methoden wären lediglich zwei verschiedene Wege zur validen Messung individueller Zeitbudgets. Auf der Basis eines eigens für diesen Methodenvergleich erhobenen Datensatzes wird gezeigt, dass die auf Grundlage beider Erhebungstechniken gewonnenen Daten signifikant unterschiedliche Ergebnisse hervorbringen und folglich zu unterschiedlichen theoretischen Schlussfolgerungen in Bezug auf die Determinanten geschlechtsspezifischer Zeitverwendungsmuster für Hausarbeit führen würden. Abstract A comparison of time-diary data and data obtained through survey questions leaves us to doubt that both methods are just two different ways of measuring individual time budgets validly. Comparing data of a unique pilot study for assessing methodological concerns of time use measurement, we find that both measurement techniques produce significantly different results that would eventually lead to substantially different conclusions with respect to the determinants of gender specific housework patterns.