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Do market relative prices reflect real scarcity of resources? If this were so, market prices would provide society with the correct signals about real scarcities. Economics--the science of scarcity-- has different answers to this question. Following the principles of current epistemology, the paper reviews three theories of markets: neoclassical, bio-economics, and unified theory, analyzing their assumptions, their derived empirical predictions about the relation between market prices and scarcity, and their validity when confronted against known basic facts. Clarifying misconceptions about the nature and the role of the market mechanism in the functioning of capitalism is the expected contribution of the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The facts indicate that real wage rates tend to be homogenous within the First World, but they exhibit significant differences between the First World and the Third World. The standard neoclassical trade model predicts real wage equalization across countries. This prediction is consistent with the first fact, but is refuted by the second. On the other hand, the standard Ricardian model does not predict real wage equalization, so in principle these facts do not refute the model; however, it is unable to explain the wages-profits distribution. This paper proposes a generalized Ricardian trade model, which solves this theoretical difficulty. The generalized model is able to explain both facts about real wages and international trade. On epistemological grounds, the Ricardian theory proves to be superior to the neoclassical theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic elites have not received enough attention in the economic literature. The obvious reason is limited access to information. This paper seeks to contribute to contemporary knowledge on elites in two ways. First, it employs a new unique data set on the world economic elite covering 2002-2014 to develop a method of measuring the degree of elite circulation; second, it provides a theoretical explanation of the observed facts. The empirical finding is that the world economic elite is subject to a low degree of circulation. Despite increased globalization, liberalization, long-term economic growth, and the recent Great Recession, the core of the elite remains mostly unchanged. Our theory attempts to explain this fact by introducing the analytical distinction between market competition and elite competition, which is a kind of meta-competition. Thus, the following relationship is derived from the theory: The low level of elite circulation, that is, the low meta-competition, underlies the oligopolistic market structures that we observe in the real world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

La relación entre crecimiento económico y medio ambiente es uno de los problemas de mayor interés en la economía moderna. Si bien hay cada vez más datos empíricos disponibles, las explicaciones teóricas siguen siendo tema de debate. En este trabajo se presenta un modelo teórico elemental de las interacciones entre el proceso económico y el medio ambiente, de acuerdo con la teoría de Georgescu- Roegen en la que las leyes de la termodinámica se incorporan al proceso económico. El modelo presupone que, actualmente, el proceso de crecimiento y distribución se efectúa bajo condiciones de estrés ambiental. Con este modelo se logra predecir y explicar las relaciones observadas entre crecimiento económico y medio ambiente. Asimismo, del modelo se desprenden nuevos temas de discusión en el ámbito de las políticas públicas. Por ello, con este artículo se procura contribuir al debate acerca de las alternativas sociales sobre el futuro de la humanidad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Los estudios económicos permiten identificar tres regularidades empíricas: los mercados de crédito bancario exigen garantías, funcionan con exceso de demanda y coexisten con otras formas de crédito. En los países en desarrollo, la estructura financiera la integran los sectores bancario, formal no bancario e informal. Aquí se presenta un modelo teórico que explica las tres regularidades en conjunto. Según este, la desigualdad del ingreso en la sociedad es el principal factor explicativo de esta estructura financiera dual-dual. El modelo predice la segmentación del mercado: el segmento de ingresos altos y los bancos conforman un mercado, el de ingresos medios y las entidades formales no bancarias constituyen otro y el segmento de ingresos bajos, junto con los pequeños prestamistas, integran el sector informal. Asimismo, el crédito es más oneroso en los dos últimos. Mientras la desigualdad del ingreso se mantenga elevada esta estructura financiera seguirá vigente. También se abordan las consecuencias del modelo en las políticas públicas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

¿Es el sistema educativo un factor nivelador del ingreso? Según datos provenientes de países en desarrollo, si bien la educación se ha expandido enormemente en los últimos decenios, la distribución del ingreso no se ha vuelto más equitativa. En el presente artículo se procura resolver esta aparente paradoja. Se construye un modelo teórico sobre la relación entre educación e ingresos en el que la identidad étnica desempeña un papel clave en el proceso de distribución. El modelo permite diagnosticar que el sistema educativo no es un factor nivelador de los ingresos. A partir del modelo teórico se deriva un conjunto más amplio de predicciones, que posteriormente se contrastan con información disponible respecto del Perú. Los resultados de las pruebas estadísticas coinciden con las predicciones del modelo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the distributive issue in Latin America. According to economic theory, the capitalist system functions on the basis of economic equilibrium. Economic equilibrium was defined as a set of prices and quantities in the market which individuals, in view of restrictions with which they have to contend, cannot, or do not wish to, alter. This equilibrium is of a quantitative nature. Accordingly, economic equilibrium may also be said to entail a social equilibrium or social order. A theory of distributive equilibrium can be constructed by adding two postulates or axioms to the micro-economic premises of existing economic theories. Equity function contains the individual's absolute and relative incomes. The equity function of individuals can be extended to the group or social class to which they belong. Distributive equilibrium is the set of values that can be assumed by an income distribution that is regarded as socially acceptable. It is a limited set of values. The hypothesis the several countries in Latin America experienced distributive crisis in the 1980s and 1990s, was considered. As a result of the debt crisis, inflation and hyperinflation and stabilization and structural adjustment programmes, the masses in most of the countries of the region have suffered significant pauperization. The issue of democracy and inequality was also discussed.

The purpose of this survey of the literature on poverty in Peru is to contribute to universal and interdisciplinary understanding, while at the same time giving due weight to discipline-specific contributions. The first three sections review relevant literature on Peru by economists, social anthropologists and sociologists. The strict positivism of much economic literature renders it susceptible to neglect power relations and assume a benign and universal process of modernization. Anthropologists have revealed the importance of local cultural identity, but at the risk of downplaying universal dimensions of well-being. Sociologists struggle to reconcile a universal analysis of class structure with renewed emphasis on individual and collective agency in adversity The last section puts forward an integrating theoretical framework centred on the concepts of inclusion and exclusion. In contrast to the 'tragic optimism' of Sender this theory of social exclusion can best be summed up as 'constructive pessimism'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]