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Understanding the occurrence and fate of current-use pesticides (CUPs) in coastal and open marine waters is essential for conducting exposure and risk assessments to ensure the protection of marine ecosystems from chemical pollution. While CUPs have been frequently studied in freshwater systems, knowledge of their behavior in marine environments remains fragmentary. This study investigated 28 CUPs across 50 sites along a transect from the Baltic outflow to pristine Arctic waters using ships of opportunity with installed FerryBox system. Overall, 14 CUPs were detected at least at one site at concentrations ranging from sub-ng/L to ng/L. CUP concentrations were higher in the Baltic outflow and decreased along the transect. Atrazine, simazine, tebuconazole, and propiconazole were detected in > 40 % of samples, including remote open sea regions, suggesting their potential for long-range marine transport. This Baltic Sea was identified as a major source of CUPs to connected marine systems. Additional CUPs were detected in the Baltic outflow, encompassing diuron, isoproturon, metazachlor, metolachlor, pyrazon, terbuthylazine, and chlortoluron. Ecotoxicological assessment indicated a moderate risk posed by metolachlor to algae. The use of the described infrastructure holds great promise for advancing our understanding of the occurrence and fate of CUPs in marine environments. [Display omitted] • 28 current-use pesticides were investigated along a Europe-Arctic marine transect. • Samples were collected using automatic samplers installed on ships of opportunity. • Atrazine, simazine, and tebuconazole were detected in > 50 % of samples. • Several pesticides were found to undergo long-range marine transport. • Ecotox assessment revealed a moderate risk posed by metolachlor in the Baltic outflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One key challenge of marine monitoring programs is to reasonably combine information from different in situ observations spread in space and time. In that context, we suggest the use of Lagrangian transport simulations extending both forward and backward in time to identify the movements of water bodies from the time they were observed to the time of their synopsis. We present examples of how synoptic maps of salinity generated by this method support the identification and tracing of river plumes in coastal regions. We also demonstrate how we can use synoptic maps to delineate different water masses in coastal margins. These examples involve quasi-continuous observations of salinity taken along ferry routes. A third application is the synchronization of measurements between fixed stations and nearby moving platforms. Both observational platforms often see the same water body, but at different times. We demonstrate how the measurements from a fixed platform can be synchronized to measurements from a moving platform by taking into account simulation-based time shifts.

Featured Application: This proof-of-concept work of in situ EEMS might find applications on different autonomous platforms in biogeochemical observing systems for the marine environment. Natural organic matter (NOM) is a key parameter in aquatic biogeochemical processes. Part of the NOM pool exhibits optical properties, namely absorption and fluorescence. The latter is frequently utilized in laboratory measurements of its dissolved fraction (fluorescent dissolved organic matter, FDOM) through excitation–emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS). We present the design and field application of a novel EEMS sensor system applicable in situ, the 'Kallemeter'. Observations are based on a field campaign, starting in Norwegian coastal waters entering the Trondheimsfjord. Comparison against the bulk fluorescence of two commercial FDOM sensors exhibited a good correspondence of the different methods and the ability to resolve gradients and dynamics along the transect. Complementary laboratory EEM spectra measurements of surface water samples and their subsequent PARAFAC analysis revealed three dominant components while the 'Kallemeter' EEMS sensor system was able to produce reasonable EEM spectra in high DOM concentrated water bodies, yet high noise levels must be addressed in order to provide comparable PARAFAC components. Achievements and limitations of this proof-of-concept are discussed providing guidance towards full in situ EEMS measurements to resolve rapid changes and processes in natural waters based on the assessment of spectral properties. Their combination with multiwavelength FDOM sensors onboard autonomous platforms will enhance our capacities in observing biogeochemical processes in the marine environment in spatiotemporal and spectral dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural organic matter (NOM) is a key parameter in aquatic biogeochemical processes. Part of the NOM pool exhibits optical properties, namely absorption and fluorescence. The latter is frequently utilized in laboratory measurements of its dissolved fraction (fluorescent dissolved organic matter, FDOM) through excitation–emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS). We present the design and field application of a novel EEMS sensor system applicable in situ, the ‘Kallemeter’. Observations are based on a field campaign, starting in Norwegian coastal waters entering the Trondheimsfjord. Comparison against the bulk fluorescence of two commercial FDOM sensors exhibited a good correspondence of the different methods and the ability to resolve gradients and dynamics along the transect. Complementary laboratory EEM spectra measurements of surface water samples and their subsequent PARAFAC analysis revealed three dominant components while the ‘Kallemeter’ EEMS sensor system was able to produce reasonable EEM spectra in high DOM concentrated water bodies, yet high noise levels must be addressed in order to provide comparable PARAFAC components. Achievements and limitations of this proof-of-concept are discussed providing guidance towards full in situ EEMS measurements to resolve rapid changes and processes in natural waters based on the assessment of spectral properties. Their combination with multiwavelength FDOM sensors onboard autonomous platforms will enhance our capacities in observing biogeochemical processes in the marine environment in spatiotemporal and spectral dimensions.

This study presents the results of the first field application of a flow-through multi-wavelength Fast Repetition Rate fluorometer (FRRF) equipped with two excitation channels (458 and 593 nm). This device aims to improve the measurement of mixed cyanobacteria and algae community's photosynthetic parameters and was designed to be easily incorporated into existing ferrybox systems. We present a spatiotemporal analysis of the maximum photochemical efficiency (F v /F m ) and functional absorption cross section (σ PSII ) recorded from April to August 2014 on a ship-of-opportunity commuting twice per week between Helsinki (Finland) and Travemünde (Germany). Temporal variations of F v /F m and σ PSII differed between areas of the Baltic Sea. However, even though the Baltic Sea is characterized by several physico-chemical gradients, no gradient was observed in F v /F m and σ PSII spatial distribution suggesting complex interactions between biotic and abiotic controls. σ PSII was sensitive to phytoplankton seasonal succession and thus differed according to the wavelength used to excite photosystems II ( PSI I) pigments. This was particularly true in summer when high σ PSII (593) values were observed later and longer than high σ PSII (458) values, reflecting the role of cyanobacteria in photosynthetic light uptake measured at community scale. In contrast, F v /F m variations were similar after excitation at 458 nm or 593 nm suggesting that the adjustment of F v /F m in response to environmental factors was similar for the different groups (algae vs. cyanobacteria) present within the phytoplankton community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing optimal observation networks in coastal oceans remains one of the major challenges towards the implementation of future efficient Integrated Ocean Observing Systems to monitor the coastal environment. In the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel, the diversity of involved processes ( e.g. tidally-driven circulation, plume dynamics) requires to adapt observing systems to the specific targeted environments. Also important is the requirement for those systems to sustain coastal applications. Two observational network design experiments have been implemented for the spring season in two regions: the Loire River plume (northern part of the Bay of Biscay) and the Western English Channel. The method used to perform these experiments is based on the ArM (Array Modes) formalism using an ensemble-based approach without data assimilation. The first experiment in the Loire River plume aims to explore different possible glider endurance lines combined with a fixed mooring to monitor temperature and salinity. Main results show an expected improvement when combining glider and mooring observations. The experiment also highlights that the chosen transect (along-shore and North–South, cross-shore) does not significantly impact the efficiency of the network. Nevertheless, the classification from the method results in slightly better performances for along-shore and North–South sections. In the Western English Channel, a tidally-driven circulation system, added value of using a glider below FerryBox temperature and salinity measurements has been assessed. FerryBox systems are characterised by a high frequency sampling rate crossing the region 2 to 3 times a day. This efficient sampling, as well as the specific vertical hydrological structure (which is homogeneous in many sub-regions of the domain), explains the fact that the added value of an associated glider transect is not significant. These experiments combining existing and future observing systems, as well as numerical ensemble simulations, highlight the key issue of monitoring the whole water column in and close to river plumes (using gliders for example) and the efficiency of the surface high frequency sampling from FerryBoxes in macrotidal regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of marine carbonate system variability and the impacts of ocean acidification (OA) on coastal marine ecosystems increasingly rely on monitoring platforms capable of delivering near real-time in situ carbonate system observations. These observations are also used for developing models and scenarios of OA, including potential impacts on marine ecosystem structure and function. An embedded flow-through spectrophotometric pH detection system has been developed alongside an underway seawater sampling system – termed a FerryBox – operating on ships of opportunity (SOOP), and can deliver a continuous data stream of mixed layer seawater pH with an in situ uncertainty of < 0.003. We report metrological approaches behind the pH detection procedure and the evaluation of dye addition perturbation with analytical precision as low as 0.0005. In addition, we present field-based observations from a deployment of the pH detection system along the Norwegian Coastal Current in winter, spring, and summer periods of 2015. Spring and summertime pH was generally ~ 0.1 higher, and up to ~ 0.255 higher, in comparison to winter pH observations. Here we show the necessity for a regular, high density monitoring approach, and the suitability of this pH detection technique for unmanned observational platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A climate service for cyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea is proposed. • Satellite remote sensing successfully detected cyanobacteria blooms. • The duration and extent of cyanobacteria blooms in the Bothnian Sea has increased. • Microscope based data showed low resemblance with satellite-based data. • Phycocyanin fluorescence synchronized with both satellite and microscopy-based data. Dense blooms of filamentous cyanobacteria are recurrent phenomena in the Baltic Sea, with occasional negative effects on the surrounding ecosystem, as well as on tourism, human health, aquaculture, and fisheries. Establishing a climate service is therefore suggested; including multi-method observations of cyanobacteria biomass, biodiversity, and biogeography, in correspondence to biotic and abiotic factors. Three different approaches were compared for determination of spatial and temporal variability and trends of the blooms; 1) microscopy-based long-term data, 2) satellite remote sensing, and 3) phycocyanin fluorescence mounted on a merchant vessel. Firstly, microscopy-based data on cyanobacteria biomass from the period 2000–2020 showed that the toxin producing genus Nodularia and non-toxic Aphanizomenon both had summer means of 15 µg C L −1, while Dolichospermum was less dominant with a mean of 8 µg C L −1. Some years also the Kattegat was affected by cyanobacteria blooms, likely transported here by ocean currents. Secondly, the satellite remote sensing time series for the period 2002–2020 indicated that near surface blooms were most frequent in the Northern Baltic Proper and that near surface blooms have increased in the Bothnian Sea, starting later in the season than in the Baltic Proper. The largest extents (i.e., total area covered) were observed in 2005, 2008, and 2018. Thirdly, phycocyanin fluorescence from a flow through sensor mounted on a merchant vessel was used as a proxy for cyanobacteria biomass and correlated to cyanobacteria biomass estimated by microscopy. However, the satellite remote sensing data on surface accumulations showed little resemblance to the data on cyanobacteria biomass based on water sampling and microscopy, interpreted as an effect of methods. Sensors on satellites mainly detect surface accumulations of cyanobacteria while the microscopy data was based on samples 0–10 m, thereby comprising a larger community. Data from satellite remote sensing of cyanobacteria was correlated to the phycocyanin fluorescence indicating that similar bio-optical properties are observed. Finally, results from a downscaled ocean climate model (NEMO Nordic) were used to produce future scenarios for temperature and salinity, which directly affects cyanobacteria blooms in the Baltic Sea, supposedly by increasing in abundance and change in species composition. Short-term forecasts can be used together with observations for early warning of cyanobacteria blooms, and we suggest an internationally coordinated cyanobacteria observation and warning system for the Baltic Sea area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operational monitoring and forecasting of marine environmental conditions is a necessary tool for the effective management and protection of the marine ecosystem. It requires the use of multi-variable real-time measurements combined with advanced physical and ecological numerical models. Towards this, a FerryBox system was originally installed and operated in the route Piraeus–Heraklion in 2003 for one year. Early 2012 the system was upgraded and moved to a new high-speed ferry traveling daily in the same route as before. This route is by large traversing the Cretan Sea being the largest and deepest basin (2500 m) in the south Aegean Sea. The HCMR Ferry Box is today the only one in the Mediterranean and thus it can be considered as a pilot case. The analysis of FerryBox SST and SSS in situ data revealed the presence of important regional and sub-basin scale physical phenomena, such as wind-driven coastal upwelling and the presence of a mesoscale cyclone to the north of Crete. In order to assess the impact of the FerryBox SST data in constraining the Aegean Sea hydrodynamic model which is part of the POSEIDON forecasting system, the in situ data were assimilated using an advanced multivariate assimilation scheme based on the Singular Evolutive Extended Kalman (SEEK) filter, a simplified square-root extended Kalman filter that operates with low-rank error covariance matrices as a way to reduce the computational burden. Thus during the period mid-August 2012–mid January 2013 in addition to the standard assimilating parameters, daily SST data along the ferryboat route from Piraeus to Heraklion were assimilated into the model. Inter-comparisons between the control run of the system (model run that uses only the standard data set of observations) and the experiment where the observational data set is augmented with the FerryBox SST data produce interesting results. Apart from the improvement of the SST error, the additional assimilation of daily of FerryBox SST observations is found to have a significant impact on the correct representation of the dynamical dipole in the central Cretan Sea and other dynamic features of the South Aegean Sea, which is then depicted in the decrease of the basin wide SSH RMS error. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current state-of-the-art of FerryBox systems are presented, and their usage as part of European observing systems such as Alg@line in the Baltic Sea or the coastal observatory COSYNA in the North Sea is discussed as well as data management systems. An overview of diverse FerryBox measurement activities is provided, covering the wide and varied potential for utilizing FerryBox data. One innovative technical component is the application of newly developed sensors suitable for FerryBox systems that focus on biogeochemical processes. This component could fill currently existing gaps of robust biogeochemical observations in the oceans and may create, together with the high spatial and temporal resolution of FerryBox systems, the possibility for new insights into physical and biogeochemical processes that were impossible to study before. Such new insights could contribute to the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and include observations of the coastal carbonate system and its interaction with climate change or eutrophication and productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyanobacterial bloom detection from flow-through optical sensors on ships-of-opportunity (‘ferryboxes’) is challenging in periods of strong stratification and due to varying cell physiology and phytoplankton community composition. Wavelet coherence analysis between ferrybox parameters (chlorophyll- a fluorescence, phycocyanin fluorescence, turbidity) was used to delineate blooms in a dataset of ten ferrybox transects, recorded during the 2005 cyanobacterial bloom season in the Baltic Sea. Independent wind speed and sea-surface temperature data were used to classify areas of cyanobacterial dominance as mixed, stratified, or surfacing bloom. These classified subsets of ferrybox observations were compared against remotely sensed chlorophyll- a concentrations, which resulted in a scheme for the interpretation of surface water phytoplankton biomass from multi-source observations. Ferrybox optical signals were significantly coherent from the onset until the end of the cyanobacterial bloom period under both stratified and mixed conditions. This suggests that the coherence analysis is sensitive to high-level community composition. Strongly stratified and suspected surfacing bloom was associated with unrealistically high remotely sensed chlorophyll- a estimates, indicating the need to flag stratified bloom areas when interpreting remote sensing imagery. The ferrybox fluorescence and turbidity signals at the 5-m sampling depth were, paradoxically, low under these conditions, suggesting that direct comparison between remote sensing and flow-through observations is not useful for stratified blooms. Correlations between ferrybox measurements and remotely sensed observations improved consistently when stratified or surfacing cyanobacterial bloom was excluded from the regression. It is discussed how coherence analysis of ferrybox observations can aid the interpretation of remotely sensed data in situations where meteorological observations suggest incomplete vertical mixing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Density gradients in coastal regions with significant freshwater input are large and variable and are a major control of nearshore circulation. However their measurement is difficult, especially where the gradients are largest, close to the coast, with significant uncertainties because of a variety of factors – time and spatial (horizontal and vertical) scales are small, tidal currents are strong and water depths shallow. Whilst temperature measurements are relatively straightforward, measurement of salinity (the dominant control of spatial variability for density) can be less reliable in turbid coastal waters. The nearshore density gradients in Liverpool Bay are investigated using an integrated multi-year data set from an in situ buoy, instrumented ferry and HF radar. The ferry is particularly useful for estimating coastal density gradients since measurements are made right from the mouth of Mersey, where gradients are on average 3×10 −4 kg m −4 . Using measurements at the single in situ site by the Mersey Bar, 17 km from land, density gradients can be estimated from the tidal excursion or by using ferry data; both giving average values of 5×10 −5 kg m −4 . Nine years of surface salinity measurements there show no evidence of predominant periodicities, although there is a weak annual cycle, and no consistent relation with storms or floods, leading to the conclusion that the majority of the Mersey plume, for most of the time, lies closer to the English shore than the Mersey Bar. Liverpool Bay's circulation is the dominant factor, with wind forcing tending to reinforce it for wind speeds greater than 5–10 m s −1 . Near bed currents are consistently shoreward and near surface currents northward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2002, the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany, started to use FerryBox-automated monitoring systems on Ships of Opportunity to continuously record standard oceanographic, biological and chemical in situ data in the North Sea. The present study summarises the operational experience gathered since the beginning of this deployment and reflects on the potential and limits of FerryBox systems as a monitoring tool. One part relates to the instrumental performance, constancy of shipping services, and the availability and quality of the recorded in situ data. The other considers integration of the FerryBox observations in scientific applications and routine monitoring campaigns. Examples are presented that highlight the added value of the recorded data for the study of both long- and short-term variability in water mass stability, plankton communities and surface water productivity in the North Sea. Through the assessment of technical and scientific performance, it is evident that FerryBoxes have become a valuable tool in marine research that helps to fill gaps in coastal and open ocean operational observation networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building of the Three Gorges Dam (Hubei (湖北) Province, China) has transformed a region with an economy based on sustainable agriculture for millennia into an entirely different environment within an exceptionally short time. This disrupts the natural biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nutrients, and metals and possibly will affect the whole catchment including downstream ecosystems, such as wetlands, estuaries, deltas, and adjacent sea areas. Starting from changes that have already been documented, this article concentrates on the possible use of a 'FerryBox', which is an automated water quality measurement system on board a ship or on shore, to monitor the short and long term development of the quality of the river water in the backwater area and downstream of the dam. While there are already research programmes running to monitor the water quality of the river and the backwater area, these programs are limited to ship campaigns with sampling and laboratory analysis. The spatial and temporal resolution of such measurements is not sufficient for an overall assessment of the water quality and for prognoses in the context of anthropogenic and climate change. Therefore, a concept of applying regular automated observations by a FerryBox is presented. It is shown that such systems are very well suited to give feedback for the assessment of measures to improve the water quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Optode sensors can provide detailed information on concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which in turn may be used to quantify variations in net primary productivity. Throughout 2005 and 2006 the performance of commercially available oxygen optodes was examined, one in each year. The optode was part of an autonomous measurement system (FerryBox) on a ferry operating between Portsmouth (UK) and Bilbao (Spain). On crossings during which water samples were collected manually, the optode outputs were compared to measurements of dissolved oxygen made by Winkler titrations. The optodes maintained good stability with no evidence of instrumental drift during the course of a year. Over the observed concentration range (230–330mMm−3) the optode data were approximately 2% low in both years. By fitting the optode data to the Winkler data the median difference between the optode and Winkler measurements is reduced to less than 1mMm−3 (0.3%) in both years. The most appropriate calibration factor for 2005 was corrected O2 =Optode O2 ×1.018 and for 2006 the corresponding equation is corrected O2 =Optode O2 ×0.884+36.8. The standard deviation (95%) of the difference between the individual Winkler measurements was 5mMm−3 and 3mMm−3 in 2005 and 2006 respectively. Calculation of the oxygen saturation anomaly is required for calculation of the air sea exchange of oxygen and net biological production. This calculation requires the use of both salinity and temperature data. Salinity is measured to better than 0.1 so the corresponding error in anomaly is less than 0.2mMm−3. Distortion of the temperature data is present due to warming of the water pumped to the optode. In winter this warming at the optode may be as great as 0.4°C. The difference in the pumped water temperature can be corrected for by reference to other measurements of sea surface temperature reducing the error to less than 1mMm−3. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An automatic measuring system called “FerryBox” was installed in the North Sea on a ferry travelling between Germany (Cuxhaven) and Great Britain (Harwich), enabling online oceanographic and biological measurements such as salinity, temperature, fluorescence, turbidity, oxygen, pH, and nutrient concentrations. Observations made along the ferry transect reveal characteristic phenomena such as high salinity inflow through the Channel into the Southern Bight, algal bloom dynamics and related oxygen and pH changes. Combination of these online observations with remote sensing enhances the spatial resolution of the transect related measurements. Several examples of the synergy between these two measuring strategies are shown, both for large-scale algal blooms in the North Sea as well as for local intense but short-term blooms in the German Bight. Coherence of the data sets can be gained and improved by using water transport models in order to obtain synoptic overviews of the remotely sensed and FerryBox related parameters. Limitations of the currently used algorithms for deriving chlorophyll-a from remote sensing images for coastal and shelf seas (Case-2 water) are discussed, as well as depth related processes which cannot be properly resolved on the basis of water intake at a fixed point. However, in unstratified coastal waters under normal conditions FerryBox data represent average conditions. The importance of future applications of this combination of methods for monitoring of coastal waters is emphasized. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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Abstract: Low salinity (<35) surface waters (LSSW) at the southern entrance to the western English Channel (48.5°N, 5.1°W, near Ushant) were observed in late winter (March–April) in three successive years (2002–04) during near continuous ship of opportunity operations. The source of the LSSW is the northward spreading plumes from the Loire (47.5°N, 2.5°W) and Gironde (45.6°N, 1.2°W) along the French Atlantic coast. Fastest plume travel times were associated with northeasterly winds, consistent with Ekman theory. Differences between years in the mean winter (January–March) combined river discharges (D) was consistent with the minimum salinities (S min) of the LSSW (2004: D=4211m3 s−1, S min=33.68; 2003: D=3630m3 s−1, S min=33.90; 2002: D=1579m3 s−1, S min=34.53). Winter mean (1905–74) salinity is otherwise 35.33 near Ushant. The LSSW intruded into the western English Channel in each year, suggesting a common phenomenon. The low salinity intrusion was freshest (mean=35.11±0.21) and most penetrative (reaching 50.7°N, 1.0°W by the end of the year) in 2003 on account of (1) entering on a spring tide giving greater tidal excursion into the western English Channel and (2) intrusion favourable winds (southwesterly/southeasterly) acting on the longer term residual flow. Less penetration occurred in 2004 when the arrival of the LSSW coincided with a neap tide followed by intrusion-resistant northwesterly winds, resulting in a less saline (mean=35.20±0.23) intrusion. In 2004, transport tended to be offshore to at least 100km from the French Atlantic coast (47°N, 4.8°W–48°N, 4.7°W). In 2002, the lower volume of plume water relative to the other years produced a more saline intrusion (mean=35.25±0.12). Prevailing westerly winds may have pushed this intrusion northwards beyond the route of the ferry, making it difficult to assess the true extent of the intrusion in 2002. A link of the LSSW to phases of the winter North Atlantic Oscillation index from a literature search of the last 84 years was inconclusive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]