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Biodiversity loss is a major global challenge and minimizing extinction rates is the goal of several multilateral environmental agreements. Policy decisions require comprehensive, spatially explicit information on species’ distributions and threats. We present an analysis of the conservation status of 14,669 European terrestrial, freshwater and marine species (ca. 10% of the continental fauna and flora), including all vertebrates and selected groups of invertebrates and plants. Our results reveal that 19% of European species are threatened with extinction, with higher extinction risks for plants (27%) and invertebrates (24%) compared to vertebrates (18%). These numbers exceed recent IPBES (Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) assumptions of extinction risk. Changes in agricultural practices and associated habitat loss, overharvesting, pollution and development are major threats to biodiversity. Maintaining and restoring sustainable land and water use practices is crucial to minimize future biodiversity declines.

Biodiversity is dramatically declining worldwide due to the complex processes that include interactions among threats. Studies investigating how multiple drivers (inter)act to influence spatio-temporal shifts in species distribution ranges, which are among the most anticipated changes in biodiversity in the future, are still scarce in the scientific literature, particularly at meaningful conservation planning scales. We used species occurrence data for eight terrestrial Mediterranean carnivores at a regional scale of southern Spain to: 1) estimate environmental favourability to each species during two periods (1960s and present); 2) predict current favourability assuming the same environment-species relationships as the ones observed in the 1960s (expected favourability); and 3) analyse single and interactive effects of human persecution, presence of protected areas, and prey richness on favourability changes (present vs. expected) for each carnivore species. We found that, with a few exceptions, environmentally favourable areas for carnivore occurrence were more widely distributed in the past than today and, for most species, favourability tended to increase inside protected areas, with low frequency of poisoning events and high prey richness. Notwithstanding, for rare species such as Iberian grey wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), interactions among drivers were the most important predictors of favourability changes, underpinned by a compensatory role of protected areas in the face of continued human persecution. We emphasize the role of protected areas in abating the effects of biodiversity threats and claim that scientific studies based on analyses of single-effect drivers that omit driver interactions may misinform conservation planning and require revision.

Narrowing the knowledge-implementation gap is an essential step for conservation to achieve impact in an effective and timely manner. To do so requires an understanding of this “gap” and the processes, challenges, and enablers that are associated with it. For conservation science, these reflections and scholarship have only gained traction in the past ten years compared to the medical and social sciences where research in this field dates back to the 1970s. Narrowing the gap can occur at all stages from production, the mediation and the transfer of knowledge, and its output or action. These stages describe the knowledge-action framework, which encapsulates the narrative of this book. This chapter synthesizes terminologies used in the context of the knowledge-implementation gap, barriers and challenges that exacerbate it, and processes and conditions that enable bridging of the gap with reflections inspired from other disciplines. We acknowledge that a geographical bias exists toward the Western world and democracies in evaluating the knowledge-implementation gap in conservation science. This is an issue as some of the most endangered biomes/ecosystems are found in the developing world and cultures. As such, we identify the need to highlight the status of the gap including bright spots in developing regions of the globe where very different factors will affect knowledge implementation. We hope this book will provide a foundation for scholarship and reflections on the knowledge-implementation gap in nature conservation.

This chapter summarizes the central problems and potential solutions that emerged from this book to address the knowledge–implementation gap in conservation science. On the knowledge production side, more incentives and training for multi- and interdisciplinary research and increased co-production with stakeholders outside of academia are required to foster research aligned with needs of conservation practitioners, decision-makers, and local communities. Particularly in the Global South, capacity building supporting conservation efforts is warranted, with citizen science emerging as a discipline with huge potential to underpin these efforts. Bridging and boundary organizations connecting different stakeholders across scales and jurisdictions are important conduits for knowledge mobilization, although their maturity level varies across continents. Finally, knowledge implementation is highly context-dependent and at various development stages globally. Common denominators of effective knowledge implementation are the involvement of multi- and interdisciplinary teams, highly accessible and standardized biodiversity data, and the inclusion of local knowledge. This chapter also offers additional perspectives to resolve the gap that were not fully covered by the book. For example, understanding societal structures and human decision-making processes, and how they influence information flow within a community, has the potential to refine communication strategies and increase the number of people supporting long-term conservation action.

Sustained monitoring of biological diversity is central to conservation biology as a discipline, allowing the evaluation of species and ecosystem conservation status, biological responses to environmental and policy changes, and conservation action. In this chapter, we look at the knowledge–implementation gap through the lens of biodiversity monitoring (hereafter, biomonitoring) to highlight the role of scientific inquiry as a stream of knowledge production in biodiversity conservation and the ways it can influence the width of the gap. Biomonitoring provides the perfect platform to discuss this. The knowledge it produces fundamentally underpins and informs all aspects of biodiversity conservation. Moreover, as a field of research, it is highly permeable to concurrently employ other sources of ecological knowledge, technological innovation, interdisciplinarity, and collaborative approaches. This means that the scientists leading these efforts likely embody the traits and skills most needed to successfully navigate and close the gap in the future, as scientists will continue to be major knowledge producers in this field. We outline the main features of traditional biomonitoring, with an emphasis on some of the challenges faced by the scientific community that may contribute to widening the knowledge–implementation gap in the discipline, as well as successful expert-driven initiatives that provide a good template to resolve said challenges.

This book aims to synthesize the state of the art on biodiversity knowledge exchange practices to understand where and how improvements can be made to close the knowledge-implementation gap in conservation science and advance this interdisciplinary topic. Bringing together the most prominent scholars and practitioners in the field, the book looks into the various sources used to produce biodiversity knowledge - from natural and social sciences to Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Citizen Science - as well as knowledge mobilization approaches to highlight the key ingredients that render successful conservation action at a global scale. By doing so, the book identified major current challenges and opportunities in the field, for different sectors that generate, mobilize, and use biodiversity knowledge (like academia, boundary organizations, practitioners, and policy-makers), to further develop cross-sectorial knowledge mobilization strategies and enhance evidence-informed decision-making processes globally.

Mountain ecotones have the potential to cause multiple patterns in divergence, from simple barrier effects to more fundamental ecological divergence. Most work in mountain ecotones in North America has focused on reinforcement between refugial populations, making prediction of how mountains impact species that are not restricted to separate glacial refugia remains difficult. This study focused on the Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792), a highly mobile felid considered to be a habitat and dietary specialist. Specifically, we used 14 microsatellite loci and landscape genetic tools to investigate if the Rocky Mountains and associated climatic transitions influence lynx genetic differentiation in western North America. Although lynx exhibited high gene flow across the region, analyses detected structuring of neutral genetic variation across our study area. Gene flow for lynx most strongly related to temperature and elevation compared with other landscape variables (terrain roughness, percent forest cover, and habitat suitability index) and geographic distance alone. Overall, genetic structure in lynx is most consistent with barrier effects created by the Rocky Mountains rather than ecological divergence. Furthermore, warmer temperatures had a measurable impact on gene flow, which suggests connectivity may further decrease in peripheral or fragmented populations as climate warms.

With unprecedented losses in biodiversity, the need for stronger environmental policy has emerged as a conservation priority. Yet recovery planning for imperiled species remains a cumbersome, slow legislative process. In the present article, we examine features of recovery planning for species listed under Canada's Species at Risk Act to determine those influencing recovery planning duration. We found that the time to completion of recovery strategies increases with the number of jurisdictions concurrently listing the species, greater land tenure diversity, species population size, and road density. Species at risk in Canada with no listing status in the United States also suffered longer delays. To achieve a more efficient, timely, and defensible implementation of recovery planning, we recommend that governments prioritize recovery planning on the basis of risk level, promote transjurisdictional collaboration among listing agencies, anticipate and mitigate conservation challenges associated with multitenured and developed landscapes, and adopt procedures that enhance compliance with legislated timelines for recovery planning.

Leporid VH genes used in the generation of their primary antibody repertoire exhibit highly divergent lineages. For the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) four VHa lineages have been described, the a1, a2, a3 and a4. Hares (Lepus spp.) and cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) express one VHa lineage each, the a2L and the a5, respectively, along with a more ancient lineage, the Lepus spp. sL and S. floridanus sS. Both the European rabbit and the Lepus europaeus use a third lineage, VHn, in a low proportion of their VDJ rearrangements. The VHn genes are a conserved ancestral polymorphism that is being maintained in the leporid genome.Their usage in a low proportion of VDJ rearrangements by both European rabbit and L. europaeus but not S. floridanus has been argued to be a remnant of an ancient European leporid immunologic response to pathogens. To address this hypothesis, in this study we sequenced VDJ rearranged genes for another North American leporid, L. americanus. Our results show that L. americanus expressed these genes less frequently and in a highly modified fashion compared to the European Lepus species. Our results suggest that the American leporid species use a different VH repertoire than the European species which may be related with an immune adaptation to different environmental conditions, such as different pathogenic agents.

Information regarding species’ status at a regional scale is instrumental for effective conservation planning. Some regions of southwestern Europe, such as Portugal, albeit included in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, lack a detailed assessment of the distribution patterns of several taxonomic groups, such as carnivores. Moreover, information is scattered, often unreliable and biased towards some species or regions. This study aimed at reviewing the existing knowledge on mammalian terrestrial carnivores in Portugal, to analyse research trends, update the species checklist and assess their historical and current distribution patterns. We conducted a comprehensive review of 755 scientific studies to analyse several publication metrics and compiled 20,189 presence records of all mammalian terrestrial carnivores occurring in Portugal since historical times to evaluate their distribution patterns. Carnivore research in Portugal began in the 18th century, with a recent boost in the mid-1990s, and has been biased towards certain research topics and regionally threatened species. There are 15 extant species in Portugal, with nine occurring across the country, six showing a more limited range, as well as one additional species currently locally extinct (Ursus arctos). Over the last decades, the distribution ranges of seven species apparently remained stable, two expanded, two contracted, and three showed unclear trends. The presence of a new invasive carnivore, the raccoon (Procyon lotor), is also documented here. This study illustrates the relevance of a comprehensive analysis of non-systematic data to assess the historic and current status of mammalian terrestrial carnivores at a national level, and to identify knowledge gaps and research priorities.

Context: Humans have introduced lagomorph species in areas outside their native ranges for their meat, fur or value as game species. Assessing the rate of success of lagomorph introductions is vital to address the ecological damage they may cause. Cases of failed lagomorph introductions in apparently suitable areas may also shed light on mechanisms that may deter invasion, which are useful in developing strategies for population control. In Spain, it has been suggested that hunters introduced the non-native eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) to compensate for the recent drastic declines of the native European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).Aims: Our main goals were to investigate (1) whether Sylvilagus rabbits have indeed been introduced by hunters across Spain, and (2) whether the species has become established in Spanish ecosystems.Methods: We interviewed 311 hunters or naturalists across Spain. The questionnaires inquired about the characteristics of game management in each locality, including the frequency of rabbit restocking, and particularly whether Sylvilagus rabbits had been released in the surveyed localities. In addition, we sampled 192 rabbit populations (n = 3974 individuals) across Spain by using molecular analysis to determine whether Sylvilagus rabbits were present in these areas.Key results: Our interview results suggest that Sylvilagus rabbits may have been released in 6% of the 311 localities surveyed. However, molecular analyses failed to confirm their persistence, because all samples belonged to O. cuniculus.Conclusions: We infer that Sylvilagus rabbits failed to establish themselves in Spain, although interviewees reported their introduction. Several reasons may explain the unsuccessful establishment of this species, such as a low propagule pressure, competition with native species, predation, inability to cope with local pathogens and unsuitable climatic conditions.Implications: The risk of future introductions of non-native game speci

The collection of biological information, including data gathered in the field, is fundamental to improve our understanding of how human impacts on biological systems can be recognized, mitigated or averted. However, the role of empirical field research has faded appreciably in the past decades with sobering implications. Indeed, important instruments to help set national and global priorities in biodiversity conservation (i.e. synthetic analyses and big data approaches) can be severely handicapped by a lack of sound observational data, collected through fieldwork. We analyzed publication trends in the conservation literature from 1980 to 2014 to ascertain whether there is reason for concern about a potential decrease in fieldwork-based investigations compared to other types of studies. Here, we show that the proportion of fieldwork-based investigations in the conservation literature dropped significantly from the 1980s until today; indeed, fieldwork-based publications decreased by 20% in comparison to a rise of 600% and 800% in modelling and data analysis studies, respectively. In parallel, we found that the most highly cited academic journals in conservation science published fieldwork studies less frequently than the lower rank journals. We contend that an apparent decrease in fieldwork-based investigations is the result of bottom-up pressures, including those associated with the publishing and the academic reward systems, while a second set acts top-down, driven by current societal needs and/or priorities. We urge researchers, funders and journals to commit, respectively, to conducting, funding and divulging relevant fieldwork research, and make some recommendations on specific steps that can be adopted in that direction.

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Lagoviruses belong to the Caliciviridae family. They were first recognized as highly pathogenic viruses of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and European brown hare (Lepus europaeus) that emerged in the 1970–1980s, namely, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV), according to the host species from which they had been first detected. However, the diversity of lagoviruses has recently expanded to include new related viruses with varying pathogenicity, geographic distribution and host ranges. Together with the frequent recombination observed amongst circulating viruses, there is a clear need to establish precise guidelines for classifying and naming lagovirus strains. Therefore, here we propose a new nomenclature based on phylogenetic relationships. In this new nomenclature, a single species of lagovirus would be recognized and called Lagovirus europaeus. The species would be divided into two genogroups that correspond to RHDV- and EBHSV-related viruses, respectively. Genogroups could be subdivided into genotypes, which could themselves be subdivided into phylogenetically well-supported variants. Based on available sequences, pairwise distance cutoffs have been defined, but with the accumulation of new sequences these cutoffs may need to be revised. We propose that an international working group could coordinate the nomenclature of lagoviruses and any proposals for revision

Climate change threatens natural landscapes through shifting distribution and abundance of species and attendant change in the structure and function of ecosystems. However, it remains unclear how climate-mediated variation in species’ environmental niche space may lead to large-scale fragmentation of species distributions, altered meta-population dynamics and gene flow, and disrupted ecosystem integrity. Such change may be especially relevant when species distributions are restricted either spatially or to a narrow environmental niche, or when environments are rapidly changing. Here, we use range-wide environmental niche models to posit that climate-mediated range fragmentation aggravates the direct effects of climate change on species in the boreal forest of North America. We show that climate change will directly alter environmental niche suitability for boreal-obligate species of trees, birds and mammals (n = 12), with most species ranges becoming smaller and shifting northward through time. Importantly, species distributions will become increasingly fragmented, as characterized by smaller mean size and greater isolation of environmentally-suitable landscape patches. This loss is especially pronounced along the Ontario-Québec border, where the boreal forest is narrowest and roughly 78% of suitable niche space could disappear by 2080. Despite the diversity of taxa surveyed, patterns of range fragmentation are remarkably consistent, with our models predicting that spruce grouse (Dendragapus canadensis), boreal chickadee (Poecile hudsonicus), moose (Alces americanus) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) could have entirely disjunct east-west population segments in North America. These findings reveal potentially dire consequences of climate change on population continuity and species diversity in the boreal forest, highlighting the need to better understand: 1) extent and primary drivers of anticipated climate-mediated range loss and fragmentation; 2) diversity of speci

Large-scale conservation planning entails the establishment of protected area networks that retain substantive natural habitat, biodiversity, and functional connectivity, but developing such networks at the spatial extent needed for meeting global targets involves considerable logistical, political, and social challenges. Normally, governments oversee development of protected area networks, but in the absence of political leadership private initiatives may offer a reasonable alternative approach in conservation planning. We review the Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement (CBFA), a private conservation planning initiative established by forestry companies and environmental organizations that suspends permitted logging activities on roughly 29 million hectares of boreal forest in Canada. The CBFA is touted as a milestone in conservation planning, multi-stakeholder cooperation, and woodland caribou conservation. Yet, the CBFA: 1) involves public land but excludes federal, provincial and aboriginal governments; 2) is not legally binding or necessarily transferrable upon sale of forest tenures; and 3) exempts industrial activities other than logging. Covering 4.6% of the boreal region of Canada, CBFA land tenures do not include most boreal ecozones and do not conform to standard guidelines for designing effective protected area networks. Further, the CBFA does not anticipate effects of climate change, which by 2080 likely will render land tenures unsuitable for caribou, the flagship species of the agreement. We conclude that private initiatives like the CBFA may constitute positive, initial steps toward large-scale conservation planning, but their successful integration into protected area networks will require scientifically robust and transparent efforts that are more fully coordinated with public initiatives.