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Introduction: Mood and anxiety disorders are a prevalent and significant leading cause of years lived with a disability worldwide. Existing antidepressants drugs are only partially effective, having burdensome side effects. One-third of patients do not achieve remission after several adequate antidepressant trials, and relapses of depression are frequent. Psychotherapies for depression are limited by the lack of trained professionals, and further by out-of-pocket prohibitive costs. Existing FDA-approved, device-based interventions are either invasive or only administered in the office. Transcranial photobiomodulation (t-PBM) with near-infrared (NIR) light may be a promising treatment option for mood and anxiety disorders. Due to its low cost, and ease of self-administration, t-PBM has the potential to become widely accessible. The safety profile of t-PBM is a relevant factor for widespread use and administration. Aim: To further investigate the t-PBM safety profile, this study aims to evaluate the tolerability and safety of t-PBM for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Method: We completed a systematic analysis of the side effects from repeated sessions of t-PBM in three studies: an open-label study for GAD (LIGHTEN GAD) and two randomized control studies for MDD (ELATED-2; ELATED-3). Overall, 80 subjects were studied. Result: Our results show that a low dose of NIR per t-PBM session can be administered with increasing frequency (up to daily sessions) and for several weeks (up to 12 weeks) without a corresponding increase in the occurrence or severity of adverse events. Additionally, there were no significant predictors for the variance in the number of reported adverse events (such as age, sex or diagnosis). Conclusion: The literature indicates that higher dosages of transcranial NIR could lead to greater antidepressant and anxiolytic effects; this study did not find any correlation between the increasing number of t-PBM sessions and the occurrence of adverse events.

BACKGROUND:Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) typically causes explosive epidemics of fever, rash and polyarthralgia after its introduction into naïve populations. Since its introduction in Panama in May of 2014, few autochthonous cases have been reported; most of them were found within limited outbreaks in Panama City in 2014 and Puerto Obaldia town, near the Caribbean border with Colombia in 2015. In order to confirm that Panama had few CHIKV cases compared with neighboring countries, we perform an epidemiological analysis of chikungunya cases reported from May 2014 to July 2015. Moreover, to understand this paucity of confirmed CHIKV cases, a vectorial analysis in the counties where these cases were reported was performed. METHODS:Chikungunya cases were identified at medical centers and notified to health authorities. Sera samples were analyzed at Gorgas Memorial Institute for viral RNA and CHIKV-specific antibody detection. RESULTS:A total of 413 suspected cases of CHIKV infections were reported, with incidence rates of 0.5 and 0.7 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2014 and 2015, respectively. During this period, 38.6% of CHIKV cases were autochthonous with rash and polyarthralgia as predominant symptoms. CHIKV and DENV incidence ratios were 1:306 and 1:34, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis of E1/E2 genomic segment indicates that the outbreak strains belong to the Asian genotype and cluster together with CHIKV isolates from other American countries during the same period. Statistical analysis of the National Vector Control program at the district level shows low and medium vector infestation level for most of the counties with CHIKV cases. This index was lower than for neighboring countries. CONCLUSIONS:Previous training of clinical, laboratory and vector workers allowed a good caption and detection of the chikungunya cases and fast intervention. It is possible that low/medium vector infestation level could explain in part the paucity of chikungunya infections in Panama.

Hay un consenso general dentro del campo de las ciencias sociales en afirmar que el nacionalismo es una práctica usual de las elites políticas y culturales de un territorio, cuando movilizan fuerzas sociales latentes a través de su discurso simbólico; discursos y prácticas que se basan en elementos materiales y subjetivos, pero que solo a través del escenario público en el que se realiza el discurso nacionalista, logran un efecto lo suficientemente fuerte como para hacer creer a una comunidad que tienen los elementos distintivos de una nación, dichos elementos son: nación y el territorio, un enemigo externo, un enemigo interno, la unidad, la historia sagrada, la independencia y un conflicto a resolver. Frente a este discurso del nacionalismo se han tejido dos grandes hipótesis, una que opina que el nacionalismo solo se puede dar dentro del marco de! Estado nación moderno, es decir, en donde cultura se asimila con instituciones jurídico políticas; o un modelo étnico, en el que se resaltan los movimientos étnicos que quieren proclamarse como Estados autónomos o aquellos movimientos culturalmente subversivos frente al Estado que pretenden deslegitimarlo. La primera de esta posmra es defendida y proclamada por autores como Ernest Gellner y Hans Kohn, quienes conciben que la nacion es un fenómeno que empieza a aparecer después de la revolución francesa y su impulso a la consolidación de Estados racionales. La otra postura es la de Anthony Smith, quien ha encontrado en la historia comunidades nacionales no estatales o previas a la formación de los Estados, por 10 que construye una tipología de modelos nacionalistas que van desde la tribu hasta la nación. La postura de este artículo es construir un modelo teórico de nacionalismo que reconozca la nación en su modelo cultural, es decir étnico particularista, pero que al mismo tiempo pueda entender e! modelo estatal, o sea, que permita estudiar e! nacionalismo de las minorías y el de! Estado; de tal forma que se llegó a la conclusión de que e! nacionalismo estatal y e! nacionalismo minoritario no son dos fenómenos distintos y excluyentes, sino que se trata de dos etapas distintas de! mismo fenómeno. Palabras claves: Nacionalismo, Estado y Nación.