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Simple Summary: This review focuses on the West African giraffe and summarizes their past and present conservation management activities. It evaluates their impact to advise and prioritize future conservation actions moving forward. This review covers monitoring and annual censuses, local community engagement, habitat use, and translocation. Recommendations for the long-term conservation of the West African giraffe are provided as a summary. The West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) was historically spread across much of the Sudano-Sahelian zone but is now restricted to Niger. Several factors resulted in their dramatic decline during the late 20th century. In 1996, only 49 individuals remained, concentrated in the 'Giraffe Zone'. Conservation activities implemented by the Government of Niger, supported by local communities and NGOs, facilitated their population numbers to increase. This review summarizes past and present conservation activities and evaluates their impact to advise and prioritize future conservation actions for the West African giraffe. The long-term conservation of the West African giraffe is highly dependent on the local communities who live alongside them, as well as supplementary support from local and international partners. Recent conservation initiatives range from community-based monitoring to the fitting of GPS satellite tags to better understand their habitat use, spatial movements to expansion areas, and environmental education to the establishment of the first satellite population of West African giraffe in Gadabedji Biosphere Reserve, the latter serving as a flagship for the future restoration of large mammal populations in West Africa. The integration of modern technologies and methods will hopefully provide better-quality data, improved spatial analyses, and greater understanding of giraffe ecology to inform the long-term management of West African giraffe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal movement behaviours are shaped by diverse factors, including resource availability and human impacts on the landscape. We generated home range estimates and daily movement rate estimates for 148 giraffe (Giraffa spp.) from all four species across Africa to evaluate the effects of environmental productivity and anthropogenic disturbance on space use. Using the continuous time movement modelling framework and a novel application of mixed effects meta-regression, we summarized overall giraffe space use and tested for the effects of resource availability and human impact on 95% autocorrelated kernel density estimate (AKDE) size and daily movement. The mean 95% AKDE was 356.4 km2 and the mean daily movement was 14.1 km, both with marginally significant differences across species. We found significant negative effects of resource availability, and significant positive effects of resource heterogeneity and protected area overlap on 95% AKDE size. There were significant negative effects of overall anthropogenic disturbance and positive effects of the heterogeneity of anthropogenic disturbance on daily movements and 95% AKDE size. Our results provide unique insights into the interactive effects of resource availability and anthropogenic development on the movements of a large-bodied browser and highlight the potential impacts of rapidly changing landscapes on animal space-use patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal movement behaviours are shaped by diverse factors, including resource availability and human impacts on the landscape. We generated home range estimates and daily movement rate estimates for 148 giraffe (Giraffa spp.) from all four species across Africa to evaluate the effects of environmental productivity and anthropogenic disturbance on space use. Using the continuous time movement modelling framework and a novel application of mixed effects meta-regression, we summarized overall giraffe space use and tested for the effects of resource availability and human impact on 95% autocorrelated kernel density estimate (AKDE) size and daily movement. The mean 95% AKDE was 356.4 km2 and the mean daily movement was 14.1 km, both with marginally significant differences across species. We found significant negative effects of resource availability, and significant positive effects of resource heterogeneity and protected area overlap on 95% AKDE size. There were significant negative effects of overall anthropogenic disturbance and positive effects of the heterogeneity of anthropogenic disturbance on daily movements and 95% AKDE size. Our results provide unique insights into the interactive effects of resource availability and anthropogenic development on the movements of a large-bodied browser and highlight the potential impacts of rapidly changing landscapes on animal space-use patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in the technology of biotelemetry are transforming the ways in which we remotely acquire environmental, physiological and behavioural data. Large and heavy batteries, however, continue to reduce the availability of GPS tracking devices for small taxa and for species with morphologies that limit attachment options. Device miniaturisation is beginning to be achieved through the use of in-built solar accumulators, but it is important that the rapid uptake of these technologies does not outpace systematic tests of their precision and performance. Here, we share the technical details of a new 180g solar-powered device originally designed for vultures but adapted for use on terrestrial herbivores. We test the precision and performance of this device using both stationary and animal-borne trials across multiple geographical areas. Our results show exceptionally high fix acquisition success rates and moderate precision error. We also demonstrate that these solar-powered devices maintain a high and stable voltage over long-term animal-borne trials. These results highlight the importance of a-priori testing of new technologies in biotelemetry research and demonstrate how solar-technology can help to address some of the challenges we face in tracking terrestrial mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in the technology of biotelemetry are transforming the ways in which we remotely acquire environmental, physiological and behavioural data. Large and heavy batteries, however, continue to reduce the availability of GPS tracking devices for small taxa and for species with morphologies that limit attachment options. Device miniaturisation is beginning to be achieved through the use of in‐built solar accumulators, but it is important that the rapid uptake of these technologies does not outpace systematic tests of their precision and performance. Here, we share the technical details of a new 180g solar‐powered device originally designed for vultures but adapted for use on terrestrial herbivores. We test the precision and performance of this device using both stationary and animal‐borne trials across multiple geographical areas. Our results show exceptionally high fix acquisition success rates and moderate precision error. We also demonstrate that these solar‐powered devices maintain a high and stable voltage over long‐term animal‐borne trials. These results highlight the importance of a‐priori testing of new technologies in biotelemetry research and demonstrate how solar‐technology can help to address some of the challenges we face in tracking terrestrial mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in the technology of biotelemetry are transforming the ways in which we remotely acquire environmental, physiological and behavioural data. Large and heavy batteries, however, continue to reduce the availability of GPS tracking devices for small taxa and for species with morphologies that limit attachment options. Device miniaturisation is beginning to be achieved through the use of in-built solar accumulators, but it is important that the rapid uptake of these technologies does not outpace systematic tests of their precision and performance. Here, we share the technical details of a new 180 g solar-powered device originally designed for vultures but adapted for use on terrestrial herbivores. We test the precision and performance of this device using both stationary and animal-borne trials across multiple geographical areas. Our results show exceptionally high fix acquisition success rates and moderate precision error. We also demonstrate that these solar-powered devices maintain a high and stable voltage over long-term animal-borne trials. These results highlight the importance of a-priori testing of new technologies in biotelemetry research and demonstrate how solar-technology can help to address some of the challenges we face in tracking terrestrial mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents the first findings on nocturnal behavior patterns of wild Angolan giraffe. We characterized their nocturnal behavior and analyzed the influence of ecological factors such as group size, season, and habitat use. Giraffe were observed using night vision systems and thermal imaging cameras on Okapuka Ranch, Namibia. A total of 77 giraffe were observed during 24 nights over two distinct periods—July–August 2016 (dry season) and February–March 2017 (wet season). Photoperiod had a marked influence on their activity and moving behavior. At dusk, giraffe reduced the time spent moving and increasingly lay down and slept at the onset of darkness. Body postures that likely correspond to rapid eye movement (REM) sleep posture (RSP) were observed 15.8 ± 18.3 min after giraffe sat down. Season had a significant effect with longer RSP phases during the dry season (dry: 155.2 ± 191.1 s, n = 79; wet: 85.8 ± 94.9 s, n = 73). Further analyses of the influence of social behavior patterns did not show an effect of group size on RSP lengths. When a group of giraffe spent time at a specific resting site, several individuals were alert (vigilant) while other group members sat down or took up RSP. Simultaneous RSP events within a group were rarely observed. Resting sites were characterized by single trees or sparse bushes on open areas allowing for good visibility in a relatively sheltered location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral plasticity, or the mechanism by which an organism can adjust its behavior in response to exogenous change, has been highlighted as a potential buffer against extinction risk. Giraffes (Giraffa spp.) are gregarious, long-lived, highly mobile megaherbivores with a large brain size, characteristics that have been associated with high levels of behavioral plasticity. However, while there has been a recent focus on genotypic variability and morphological differences among giraffe populations, there has been relatively little discussion centered on behavioral flexibility within giraffe populations. In large wild herbivores, one measure of behavioral plasticity is the ability to adjust herd size in line with local environmental conditions. Here, we examine whether a genetically isolated population of Angolan giraffes (G. g. angolensis) in a heterogeneous environment adjust their herd sizes in line with spatiotemporal variation in habitat. Our results suggest that ecological factors play a role in driving herd size, but that social factors also shape and stabilize herd-size dynamics. Specifically, we found that 1) mixed-sex herds were larger than single-sex herds, suggesting that sexual composition of herds played a role in driving herd size; 2) the presence of young did not influence herd size, suggesting that giraffes did not make use of the dilution effect to safeguard their young from predation; and 3) there was a strong relationship between herd size and spatial, but not seasonal, variation in food biomass availability, suggesting stability in herd sizes over time, but temporary variation in line with resource availability. These findings indicate that giraffes adjust herd size in line with local exogenous factors, signaling high behavioral plasticity, but also suggest that this mechanism operates within the constraints of the social determinants of giraffe herd size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in the technology of biotelemetry are transforming the ways in which we remotely acquire environmental, physiological and behavioural data. Large and heavy batteries, however, continue to reduce the availability of GPS tracking devices for small taxa and for species with morphologies that limit attachment options. Device miniaturisation is beginning to be achieved through the use of in-built solar accumulators, but it is important that the rapid uptake of these technologies does not outpace systematic tests of their precision and performance. Here, we share the technical details of a new 180 g solar-powered device originally designed for vultures but adapted for use on terrestrial herbivores. We test the precision and performance of this device using both stationary and animal-borne trials across multiple geographical areas. Our results show exceptionally high fix acquisition success rates and moderate precision error. We also demonstrate that these solar-powered devices maintain a high and stable voltage over long-term animal-borne trials. These results highlight the importance of a-priori testing of new technologies in biotelemetry research and demonstrate how solar-technology can help to address some of the challenges we face in tracking terrestrial mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population numbers of Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) have declined throughout its range by more than 85% in the last three decades, including in the isolated easternmost population found in the Garamba National Park (NP) in the Democratic Republic of Congo.We provide new data on the conservation status and ecology of Kordofan giraffe in Garamba NP, specifically on the current population dynamics, distribution patterns, and spatial ecology for informed conservation management decisions.Data were gathered between September 26, 2016, and August 17, 2017, through direct observation and from eight GPS satellite collars deployed in early 2016. Movements, distribution patterns, and autocorrelated kernel density home ranges were estimated using the Continuous‐Time Movement Modeling (CTMM) framework. We then compared results with home ranges calculated using the kernel density estimation (95% KDE) method.The Garamba NP population was estimated to be 45 giraffe with a female‐dominated sex ratio (35% males; 65% females), and adult‐dominated age class ratio (11.2% juveniles; 17.7% subadults; 71.1% adults). The giraffe's distribution was limited to the south‐central sector of the Park, and giraffe were divided over different areas with some degree of connectivity. The average giraffe home range size was 934.3 km2 using AKDE and 268.8 km2 using KDE. Both methods have shown surprisingly large home ranges despite of the relatively high humidity of Garamba NP.Based on the outcomes of this research, urgent conservation action is needed to protect Garamba's remaining giraffe population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All giraffe (Giraffa) were previously assigned to a single species (G. camelopardalis) and nine subspecies. However, multi‐locus analyses of all subspecies have shown that there are four genetically distinct clades and suggest four giraffe species. This conclusion might not be fully accepted due to limited data and lack of explicit gene flow analyses. Here, we present an extended study based on 21 independent nuclear loci from 137 individuals. Explicit gene flow analyses identify less than one migrant per generation, including between the closely related northern and reticulated giraffe. Thus, gene flow analyses and population genetics of the extended dataset confirm four genetically distinct giraffe clades and support four independent giraffe species. The new findings support a revision of the IUCN classification of giraffe taxonomy. Three of the four species are threatened with extinction, and mostly occurring in politically unstable regions, and as such, require the highest conservation support possible. Multi‐locus analyses of all giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) subspecies suggest four giraffe species. Our extended study based on 21 nuclear loci from 137 individuals, confirms four distinct species of giraffe based on explicit gene flow and population genetic analyses. The new findings call for a revision of the IUCN classification of giraffe taxonomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Traditionally, one giraffe species and up to eleven subspecies have been recognized [ 1 ]; however, nine subspecies are commonly accepted [ 2 ]. Even after a century of research, the distinctness of each giraffe subspecies remains unclear, and the genetic variation across their distribution range has been incompletely explored. Recent genetic studies on mtDNA have shown reciprocal monophyly of the matrilines among seven of the nine assumed subspecies [ 3, 4 ]. Moreover, until now, genetic analyses have not been applied to biparentally inherited sequence data and did not include data from all nine giraffe subspecies. We sampled natural giraffe populations from across their range in Africa, and for the first time individuals from the nominate subspecies, the Nubian giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis Linnaeus 1758 [ 5 ], were included in a genetic analysis. Coalescence-based multi-locus and population genetic analyses identify at least four separate and monophyletic clades, which should be recognized as four distinct giraffe species under the genetic isolation criterion. Analyses of 190 individuals from maternal and biparental markers support these findings and further suggest subsuming Rothschild’s giraffe into the Nubian giraffe, as well as Thornicroft’s giraffe into the Masai giraffe [ 6 ]. A giraffe survey genome produced valuable data from microsatellites, mobile genetic elements, and accurate divergence time estimates. Our findings provide the most inclusive analysis of giraffe relationships to date and show that their genetic complexity has been underestimated, highlighting the need for greater conservation efforts for the world’s tallest mammal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The current taxonomy of the African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is primarily based on pelage pattern and geographic distribution, and nine subspecies are currently recognized. Although genetic studies have been conducted, their resolution is low, mainly due to limited sampling. Detailed knowledge about the genetic variation and phylogeography of the South African giraffe (G. c. giraffa) and the Angolan giraffe (G. c. angolensis) is lacking. We investigate genetic variation among giraffe matrilines by increased sampling, with a focus on giraffe key areas in southern Africa. Results: The 1,562 nucleotides long mitochondrial DNA dataset (cytochrome b and partial control region) comprises 138 parsimony informative sites among 161 giraffe individuals from eight populations. We additionally included two okapis as an outgroup. The analyses of the maternally inherited sequences reveal a deep divergence between northern and southern giraffe populations in Africa, and a general pattern of distinct matrilineal clades corresponding to their geographic distribution. Divergence time estimates among giraffe populations place the deepest splits at several hundred thousand years ago. Conclusions: Our increased sampling in southern Africa suggests that the distribution ranges of the Angolan and South African giraffe need to be redefined. Knowledge about the phylogeography and genetic variation of these two maternal lineages is crucial for the development of appropriate management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thornicroft's giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti, is a geographically isolated subspecies of giraffe found only in north-east Zambia. The population only occurs in Zambia's South Luangwa Valley, an area which interestingly places it between the current distribution of Masai ( G. c. tippelskirchi) giraffe to the north, and the Angolan ( G. c. angolensis) and South African ( G. c. giraffa) giraffe in the south-west and south, respectively. Specific studies have been undertaken on the ecology of this subspecies, but their population genetics remains unknown. We studied 34 individuals from the South Luangwa National Park and adjacent Lupande Game Management Area and seven individuals from northern Botswana. The complete cytochrome b and control region sequences of the mitochondrial genome were sequenced and analysed together with database data by maximum likelihood tree reconstruction and maximum parsimony network analyses. The giraffe from Zambia's South Luangwa Valley are most closely related to the subspecies G. c. tippelskirchi and part of their radiation. However, they form a unique population that would benefit from increased research and conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimates of home range size of giraffe in the northern Namib Desert were on average larger than those in other populations. In particular, the largest individual home range of any giraffe bull (1950 km2) was recorded – correlated with low population density, reduced forage density and increased searching for receptive cows. The predominant pattern of movement was linear, along the riparian environments, however, large-scale irregular movements into tributaries and other areas were also recorded. Small-scale movements by bulls into the mountains above the Hoarusib River as well as by cows into the northern tributaries of the Hoanib River were observed. Seasonal movements of giraffe were not as distinctive as those in other giraffe populations. Small-scale habitat segregation was observed in the Hoarusib River study area with giraffe cows foraging only in the Gomatum River during the hot-dry season. The first ever study of GPS satellite collared giraffe provided some of the highest resolution data on giraffe movements to date, including strong biphasic movement behaviour of giraffe over 24-h periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal movements of domestic stock and wildlife were analysed across the Hoanib River catchment. Data were gathered by ground and aerial surveys and represent the seasonal movement of animals, rather than the total number of animals in the catchment area. Domestic stock movement and distribution did not vary substantially and appeared to be associated with the seasonal, spatial availability of water and grazing in different places, and with human settlements. There was an apparent movement of cattle out of the catchment area during the hot-dry season. Only African elephant and springbok were found close to human settlements. Giraffe, Hartmann's mountain zebra and oryx were found to avoid human settlements and were predominantly observed in areas with little disturbance from humans and domestic stock. Wildlife had distinctive wet- and dry-season ranges, with larger concentrations occurring in the Hoanib River during the cold-dry and hot-dry seasons when grazing and browsing was limited elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on the elephants of the Hoanib River catchment are limited. The most significant research undertaken during a period of drought and civil war inducing a high stress situation for the elephants. The only other reported study was undertaken at the end of the Namibian civil war and focused on elephant range and movement and did not carry out an in-depth analysis of the elephants ecology. The current study examined two distinct populations of elephants separated by an area with a high human population. The average group size of elephant herds in both the eastern and western sections of the catchment has declined steadily from the early 1980s until the present day. Average group size also appeared to be seasonally dependent, with larger group sizes observed during the cold-dry and wet season in the eastern catchment and during the wet and hot-dry season in the western catchment. The social interactions between elephants were investigated in the western section of the catchment only. Associations between different family units were only loose affiliations lacking the strong social bonds reported from other areas of Africa. Adult male group associations were shown to be transient and irregular, with small group size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of intensive grazing and browsing of domestic stock and wildlife on the number of species and abundance of vegetation was investigated in the Hoanib River catchment, north-western Namibia. The seasonal abundance of ground cover, bare earth, canopy cover, annual grass, perennial grass and annual forbs were measured in each of the focus-study areas. In three of the focus areas where the ranges of both domestic stock and wildlife were restricted either by fencing or water availability, impact on the vegetation was greatest. The final focus area was a more ‘open range’ system that allowed for the free movement of wildlife. Under these conditions the species abundance and availability of browsing and grazing was greater than the other focus areas during both the wet and dry seasons. However, very little difference in abundance and availability of vegetation was observed between focus areas in both seasons regardless of landuse. There is generally a low abundance of perennial grasses and browse species affording the ecosystem little resistance and resilience to disturbance caused by grazing and drought. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The numbers of livestock and wildlife that can be supported in an arid environment such as the Hoanib River catchment, north-western Namibia, are determined by annual and seasonal availability of grazing and browsing. The availability and abundance of vegetation was investigated in eight focus-study areas across the catchment. The vegetation of the focus area was observed to behave in a non-equilibrial manner in that it was dependent on annual rainfall rather than intensity of landuse. The Zurich–Montpellier method of vegetation assessment was used for the evaluation of vegetation plots. The amount of dry season grazing was also dependent on the previous season''s rainfall, with ‘dead grass’ and perennial grass only available after an ‘above average’ rainfall season. Vegetation communities were dominated by mixedColosphosermum mopane woodlands in the 100–350 mm rainfall zone, while perennial grasses dominated the 50–100 mm rainfall zone. While the bulk rangeland appeared not to be disturbed by landuse, a 2 km ‘sacrifice zone’ around water sources was found to have changes in vegetation species and abundance. During below-average rainfall seasons and drought, when there is limited or no grazing, browse becomes the most important source of nutrition for domestic stock and wildlife. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Frontline technology in GPS biotelemetry reveals the first full picture of giraffe chronobiology in a landscape of fear. • Giraffe diel locomotor activity patterns are constrained by external factors (photic and thermal zeitgebers). • New insights into the effect of moonlight on the nocturnal activity patterns of large ungulates. Natural cycles of light and darkness shift the balance of risks and gains for animals across space and time. Entrainment to photic cycles allows animals to spatiotemporally adapt their behavioural and physiological processes in line with interplaying ecological factors, such as temperature, foraging efficiency and predation risk. Until recently, our understanding of these chronobiological processes was limited by the difficulties of 24 h observations. Technological advances in GPS biotelemetry however are now allowing us unprecedented access to long-term, fine-scale activity data. Here we use data derived from frontline technology to present the first large-scale investigation into the effects of natural fluctuations of light and darkness on the locomotor activity patterns of a threatened African mega-herbivore, the giraffe (Giraffa spp.). Using data from a remote population of Angolan giraffe (G. g. angolensis) in the northern Namib Desert, Namibia, we reveal the first full picture of giraffe chronobiology in a landscape of fear. Furthermore, we present clear evidence of the effect of moonlight on the nocturnal activity patterns of large ungulates. Our results are in line with recent research demonstrating that, rather than a fixed internal representation of time (circadian clock), many surface-dwelling ungulates have plastic activity patterns that are vulnerable to modification by external factors including light and temperature. Relatedly, we highlight important conservation management implications of rising temperatures and increasing light pollution on the chronobiology of surface-dwelling mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The West African giraffe is restricted to Niger, but historically it inhabited much of the Sudano-Sahelian zone. The population is concentrated in the 'Giraffe Zone' (GZ), an unprotected area with a high human population density. Since the mid-1990s, the giraffe population has steadily increased mainly due to the collective social and conservation initiatives of the government, non-governmental organizations and the local community. In 2018, the first West African giraffe satellite population was established through the reintroduction of eight individuals into Gadabedji Biosphere Reserve (GBR). In this study, we aimed to describe the current state of human–giraffe coexistence, human attitudes towards giraffe and human habits of natural resources use through a questionnaire survey conducted in the GZ and GBR. Although most of the GZ respondents highlighted crop damage caused by giraffe, we also found overall positive attitudes towards the animals. Most respondents from both sites expressed positive attitudes towards giraffe, highlighting that they do not see poaching as a major current threat. However, the giraffe population continues to be directly threatened by habitat loss through firewood cutting, livestock overgrazing and agriculture expansion. Long-term conservation of the West African giraffe is dependent on better habitat protection and understanding of current human–giraffe coexistence through ensuring that giraffe presence will benefit local communities across their range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the speciation continuum, the strength of reproductive isolation varies, and species boundaries are blurred by gene flow. Interbreeding among giraffe (Giraffa spp.) in captivity is known, and anecdotal reports of natural hybrids exist. In Kenya, Nubian (G. camelopardalis camelopardalis), reticulated (G. reticulata), and Masai giraffe sensu stricto (G. tippelskirchi tippelskirchi) are parapatric, and thus, the country might be a melting pot for these taxa. We analyzed 128 genomes of wild giraffe, 113 newly sequenced, representing these three taxa. Results: We found varying levels of Nubian ancestry in 13 reticulated giraffe sampled across the Laikipia Plateau most likely reflecting historical gene flow between these two lineages. Although comparatively weaker signs of ancestral gene flow and potential mitochondrial introgression from reticulated into Masai giraffe were also detected, estimated admixture levels between these two lineages are minimal. Importantly, contemporary gene flow between East African giraffe lineages was not statistically significant. Effective population sizes have declined since the Late Pleistocene, more severely for Nubian and reticulated giraffe. Conclusions: Despite historically hybridizing, these three giraffe lineages have maintained their overall genomic integrity suggesting effective reproductive isolation, consistent with the previous classification of giraffe into four species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary It is not unexpected that a proposal, such as ours [1] , of four new mammalian species stirs up controversy, as evident in the correspondence by Bercovitch et al. [2] . We appreciate that their concerns are unrelated to the quality of the genetic data, the methodological approach or analyses, but are focused on the interpretation. Thus, we provided an analysis of giraffe speciation based on genomic sequence data, and not just “another viewpoint on giraffe taxonomy” [2] . We maintain our perspective that there is not only one but four species of giraffe ( Figure 1 ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation translocation is a management technique employed to introduce, re-introduce or reinforce wild animal and plant populations. Giraffe translocations are being conducted throughout Africa, but the lack of effective post-translocation monitoring limits our ability to assess translocation outcomes. One potential indicator of translocation success is the establishment of characteristic movement and home range behaviour in the new location. We analysed the post-translocation movement patterns of six Global Positioning System-collared Angolan giraffes ( Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis) in three regions of Namibia. We estimated home range size with minimum convex polygon (MCP) and adaptive local convex hull estimators, and assessed home range behaviour with the localizing tendency model and a home range Monte Carlo bootstrap analysis. Four of the six giraffes appeared to establish home ranges, indicating short-term translocation success. The other two giraffes exhibited long-distance linear movements throughout the observation period, suggesting they did not establish home ranges. Home range sizes varied greatly among regions. Our results suggest monitoring translocated animals for the establishment of characteristic movement behaviour could be a useful early indicator of translocation success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large mammals have drastically declined in the past few decades yet we know little about their ecology. Giraffe numbers for instance, have dropped by more than 40% in the last 15 years and recently, a skin disease, has been observed in numerous giraffe populations across Africa. The disease(s), commonly referred to as giraffe skin disease (GSD), manifests as lesions, wrinkled skin, and encrustations that can affect the limbs, shoulder or neck of giraffes. Here, we review GSD cases from literature reports and surveying efforts of individuals working with giraffes in the wild and in captivity. The aim of this review was to describe spatial variation in the anatomical location of lesions, prevalence, and severity of GSD. In total, we retrieved 16 published sources that referenced GSD and we received 63 respondents to our survey. We found that GSD has been observed in 13 protected areas across 7 countries in Africa and in 11 out of 48 zoos distributed across 6 countries. The prevalence of GSD in wild populations ranged from 2% to 80% of observed giraffes. Although little research to date has focused on GSD, our review reveals that the disease is more prevalent than initially thought and more severe in some areas than previously assumed. With vast areas of Sub-Saharan Africa still without information on GSD, researching the prevalence and conservation impacts of this disease should be a priority. We propose broader and longer-term studies to further describe and comprehend the effects of GSD on giraffe vital rates among populations in the wild and in captivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the study regarding the daily movements, seasonal ranges and home ranges of giraffe in northern Botswana. The study was participated by adult female giraffe fitted with global positioning system (GPS) satellite units to track the giraffe's movements that conducted at the Wildlife Management Area in Okavango Delta. Result shows that no giraffe were mutually exclusive in dry and wet season ranges with the overlapping of seasonal ranges.

Foot health in zoo giraffe has been a topic of recent research, although little is known about the foot health of free-ranging giraffe. This study describes the foot shape and radiographic pathological changes in 27 young adult Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) from a translocation in Uganda (August 2017). Giraffe feet were observed to have a concave sole, the hoof wall was longest by the toe tip, and the weight-bearing surface of the foot was primarily along the periphery of the foot including hoof wall, parts of the heel, and the edge of the sole. Radiographs showed that pedal osteitis and sesamoid bone cysts were relatively uncommon (3/24 giraffe with osteitis, 1/24 giraffe with sesamoid cysts), and that no giraffe in the study had P3 joint osteoarthritis, P3 rotation, or P3 fractures. Radiographs consistently demonstrated a positive palmar/plantar angle with the sole of the hoof thicker at the heel than by the toe tip, with the non weight-bearing palmar/plantar angle measuring 1.6°- 4.3°. This is the first systematic review of foot shape and radiographs in free-ranging giraffe and demonstrates a low prevalence of foot pathologies. This study suggests qualitative differences in foot shape, foot health, radiographic anatomy, and foot pathologies when comparing free-ranging and zoo giraffe. Further research is needed to identify why these differences occur and whether husbandry modifications could help improve zoo giraffe foot health and prevent associated lameness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two geographically distinct populations of giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis) were sampled for this study, the northern Namib Desert and Etosha National Park. Population genetic parameters and relationships within subpopulations were estimated to better understand the genetic architecture of this isolated subspecies. Gene flow between the geographically separated populations can be attributed to recent translocation of giraffe between the two populations. Inbreeding estimates in the six subpopulations studied were low though we found evidence that genetic drift may be affecting the genetic diversity of the isolated populations in northern Namibia. Population dynamics of the sampling locations was inferred with relationship coefficient analyses. Recent molecular systematics of the Namibian giraffe populations indicates that they are distinct from the subspecies Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa and classified as G. c. angolensis. Based on genetic analyses, these giraffe populations of northern Namibia, the desert-dwelling giraffe and those protected in Etosha National Park, are a distinct subspecies from that previously assumed; thus we add data on G. c. angolensis to our scientific knowledge of this giraffe of southern Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three of the four newly distinguished giraffe species are in significant decline. Concern over the species' threat status prompted a proposal to list the giraffe, which is still recognized as a single species by the IUCN, in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). However, there is a distinct lack of quantitative data and research on the scale, extent and purpose of both illegal and legal hunting, and the use and/or trading of giraffe and their parts. As a first step towards addressing these knowledge gaps, we conducted a literature review as well as a specialist survey regarding the use and trade of giraffe. We found that the dynamics of legal and illegal trade and the use of giraffe parts vary throughout Africa, ranging from local consumption to cross border and international trade, and from ornamental adornment to medicinal and consumption use. While the CITES listing of giraffe provides a mechanism through which international trade can be monitored, our findings suggest that the majority of illegal hunting currently occurs domestically and only within certain giraffe populations. This article is the first step towards understanding the drivers and managing the associated impacts of unsustainable and illegal giraffe use and trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the status of giraffe and okapi in Africa. Topics discussed include the restriction of the giraffe and okapi to the African continent, the role played by herbivores like giraffe and okapi in ecosystems as predators, and the statement of the Giraffe Conservation Foundation regarding the decline of the number of giraffe in Africa since 1998.

Scientists are increasingly using volunteer efforts of citizen scientists to classify images captured by motion‐activated trail cameras. The rising popularity of citizen science reflects its potential to engage the public in conservation science and accelerate processing of the large volume of images generated by trail cameras. While image classification accuracy by citizen scientists can vary across species, the influence of other factors on accuracy is poorly understood. Inaccuracy diminishes the value of citizen science derived data and prompts the need for specific best‐practice protocols to decrease error. We compare the accuracy between three programs that use crowdsourced citizen scientists to process images online: Snapshot Serengeti, Wildwatch Kenya, and AmazonCam Tambopata. We hypothesized that habitat type and camera settings would influence accuracy. To evaluate these factors, each photograph was circulated to multiple volunteers. All volunteer classifications were aggregated to a single best answer for each photograph using a plurality algorithm. Subsequently, a subset of these images underwent expert review and were compared to the citizen scientist results. Classification errors were categorized by the nature of the error (e.g., false species or false empty), and reason for the false classification (e.g., misidentification). Our results show that Snapshot Serengeti had the highest accuracy (97.9%), followed by AmazonCam Tambopata (93.5%), then Wildwatch Kenya (83.4%). Error type was influenced by habitat, with false empty images more prevalent in open‐grassy habitat (27%) compared to woodlands (10%). For medium to large animal surveys across all habitat types, our results suggest that to significantly improve accuracy in crowdsourced projects, researchers should use a trail camera set up protocol with a burst of three consecutive photographs, a short field of view, and determine camera sensitivity settings based on in situ testing. Accuracy level comparisons such as this study can improve reliability of future citizen science projects, and subsequently encourage the increased use of such data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giraffe populations have declined in abundance by almost 40% over the last three decades, and the geographic ranges of the species (previously believed to be one, now defined as four species) have been significantly reduced or altered. With substantial changes in land uses, loss of habitat, declining abundance, translocations, and data gaps, the existing geographic range maps for giraffe need to be updated.We performed a review of existing giraffe range data, including aerial and ground observations of giraffe, existing geographic range maps, and available literature. The information we collected was discussed with and validated by subject‐matter experts. Our updates may serve to correct inaccuracies or omissions in the baseline map, or may reflect actual changes in the distribution of giraffe.Relative to the 2016 International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List Assessment range map, the updated geographic range maps show a 5.6% decline in the range area of all giraffe taxa combined. The ranges of Giraffa camelopardalis (northern giraffe) and Giraffa tippelskirchi (Masai giraffe) decreased in area by 37% (122432 km2) and 4.7% (20816 km2) respectively, whereas 14% (41696 km2) of the range of Giraffa reticulata (reticulated giraffe) had not been included in the original geographic range map and has now been added. The range of Giraffa giraffa (southern giraffe) showed little overall change; it increased by 0.1% (419 km2).Ranges were larger than previously reported in six of the 21 range countries (Botswana, Ethiopia, Mozambique, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe), had declined in seven (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Malawi, Niger, Uganda, and Zambia) and remained unchanged in seven (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, eSwatini, Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, and South Africa).In Kenya, the ranges of both Giraffa tippelskirchi and Giraffa camelopardalis decreased, but the range of Giraffa reticulata was larger than previously believed.Our updated range maps increase existing knowledge, and are important for conservation planning for giraffe. However, since rapid infrastructure development throughout much of Africa is a driver of giraffe population declines, there is an urgent need for a continent‐wide, consistent and systematic giraffe survey to produce more accurate range maps, in order to inform conservation and policy planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-invasive techniques have long been used to estimate wildlife population abundance and density. However, recent technological breakthroughs have facilitated non-invasive estimation of the proportion of animal populations with certain diseases. Giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis are increasingly becoming recognized as a species of conservation concern with decreasing population trajectories across their range in Africa., Diseases may be an important component impacting giraffe population declines, and the emerging 'giraffe skin disease' ( GSD), characterized by the appearance of wrinkled skin and alopecic lesions on the limbs, neck and chest of infected giraffe, may hinder movement causing increased susceptibility to predation., We examined the prevalence of GSD in Tanzania's Ruaha National Park over a 4-month period in 2015, using photographic capture-recapture surveys via road-based transects. We divided the study area into five circuitous survey units, each approximately 100 km in length ( [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three of the four species of giraffe are threatened, particularly the northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), which collectively have the smallest known wild population estimates. Among the three subspecies of the northern giraffe, the West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) had declined to 49 individuals by 1996 and only recovered due to conservation efforts undertaken in the past 25 years, while the Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) remains at <2300 individuals distributed in small, isolated populations over a large geographical range in Central Africa. These combined factors could lead to genetically depauperated populations. We analyzed 119 mitochondrial sequences and 26 whole genomes of northern giraffe individuals to investigate their population structure and assess the recent demographic history and current genomic diversity of West African and Kordofan giraffe. Phylogenetic and population structure analyses separate the three subspecies of northern giraffe and suggest genetic differentiation between populations from eastern and western areas of the Kordofan giraffe's range. Both West African and Kordofan giraffe show a gradual decline in effective population size over the last 10 ka and have moderate genome-wide heterozygosity compared to other giraffe species. Recent inbreeding levels are higher in the West African giraffe and in Kordofan giraffe from Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Although numbers for both West African and some populations of Kordofan giraffe have increased in recent years, the threat of habitat loss, climate change impacts, and illegal hunting persists. Thus, future conservation actions should consider close genetic monitoring of populations to detect and, where practical, counteract negative trends that might develop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species is the fundamental taxonomic unit in biology and its delimitation has implications for conservation. In giraffe (Giraffa spp.), multiple taxonomic classifications have been proposed since the early 1900s. 1 However, one species with nine subspecies has been generally accepted, 2 likely due to limited in-depth assessments, subspecies hybridizing in captivity, 3,4 and anecdotal reports of hybrids in the wild. 5 Giraffe taxonomy received new attention after population genetic studies using traditional genetic markers suggested at least four species. 6,7 This view has been met with controversy, 8 setting the stage for debate. 9,10 Genomics is significantly enhancing our understanding of biodiversity and speciation relative to traditional genetic approaches and thus has important implications for species delineation and conservation. 11 We present a high-quality de novo genome assembly of the critically endangered Kordofan giraffe (G. camelopardalis antiquorum) 12 and a comprehensive whole-genome analysis of 50 giraffe representing all traditionally recognized subspecies. Population structure and phylogenomic analyses support four separately evolving giraffe lineages, which diverged 230–370 ka ago. These lineages underwent distinct demographic histories and show different levels of heterozygosity and inbreeding. Our results strengthen previous findings of limited gene flow and admixture among putative giraffe species 6,7,9 and establish a genomic foundation for recognizing four species and seven subspecies, the latter of which should be considered as evolutionary significant units. Achieving a consensus over the number of species and subspecies in giraffe is essential for adequately assessing their threat level and will improve conservation efforts for these iconic taxa. [Display omitted] • Comprehensive whole-genome analysis of 50 individuals from all giraffe subspecies • Results show four separate giraffe lineages with distinct demographic histories • Luangwa giraffe should be treated as its own separate subspecies of Masai giraffe • Chromium de novo genome assembly of the critically endangered Kordofan giraffe Coimbra et al.'s assessment on giraffe taxonomy uses genome data from all traditionally recognized subspecies. Population genomic and phylogenomic analyses support four separately evolving giraffe lineages that underwent distinct demographic histories. Their current genomic diversity will inform targeted conservation efforts for these iconic taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]