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Objectives: The great saphenous vein is the lower limb's longest and thickest-walled superficial vein. Its anatomy is complex, while its anatomical variations are widespread. This study aimed to illustrate the anatomy and variations of the great saphenous vein at the saphenofemoral junction., Methods: The study was conducted on 75 fresh-frozen cadaveric lower limbs. Cadavers with evidence of prior leg surgery or trauma and any congenital abnormality or gross deformity were excluded. The saphenofemoral junction was studied in detail with emphasis on the number, incidence, draining pattern of tributaries, and duplication of the great saphenous vein., Results: Out of the 75 cadaveric lower limbs, 57.3% were obtained from males, and 42.7% were obtained from females. The mean age of the cadaveric lower extremities was 66.6 years (range 42-91). The number of tributaries at the saphenofemoral junction varied from 0 to 7, with a mean of 3.8. The most frequent number of branches was 4-5 in 61.3% of cases. The most consistent tributary was the superficial external pudendal vein, while the posterior accessory great saphenous vein was the least frequent tributary. 80% of the branches drained into the saphenofemoral junction directly (53.3%) or by a common trunk (26.7%%). The most frequent common trunk was the superficial epigastric and superficial circumflex iliac vein (10.7%). The rest 20% of the tributaries drained directly into the common femoral vein. The commonest branch reaching the common femoral vein was the superficial external pudendal vein (10.7%). Duplication of the great saphenous vein was observed in 2.7% of the cases., Conclusions: There is a significant variation of tributaries at the saphenofemoral junction regarding the number, incidence, draining pattern of branches, and duplication of the great saphenous vein., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Background and Objectives : We aimed to analyze the morphology of the common femoral artery (CFA) and common femoral vein (CFV) and the anatomical relationship between the two blood vessels, and to investigate the factors that influence the size of these blood vessels. Materials and Methods : This retrospective study included 584 patients who underwent abdominal and pelvic computed tomography from 1 February to 28 February 2021. We measured the vessels at three regions on both lower extremities (inguinal ligament, distal vessel bifurcation, midpoint) and analyzed and classified the degree of overlap between the CFA and CFV into three types, as well as the factors affecting vessel size. Results : After comparing the femoral vessels according to location, it was confirmed that the CFA and CFV were larger distally than proximally on both sides ( p < 0.001). The degree of overlap increased distally ( p < 0.001) but was less at the middle ( p < 0.001) and distal ( p = 0.011) regions on the right side. It was found that the size of CFA and CFV were related to age, sex, and body mass index (BMI) and that malignancy also affects the CFA size. Conclusions : The morphology of the CFA and CFV was conical and increased distally. The degree of overlap between the two blood vessels also increased distally but was less on the right than on the left. Age, sex, and BMI are significant factors affecting the sizes of the CFA and CFV, and malignancy is associated with the CFA size.

Background: Post-spinal anesthesia hypotension during cesarean delivery is caused by decreased systemic vascular resistance due to the blockage of the autonomic nerves, which is further worsened by inferior vena cava (IVC) compression by the gravid uterus. This study aimed to assess whether peak velocity and diameter of the IVC below the xiphoid or right common femoral vein (RCFV) in the inguinal region, as measured on ultrasound, could reflect the degree of IVC compression and further identify parturients at risk of post-spinal hypotension., Methods: Fifty-six parturients who underwent elective cesarean section with spinal anesthesia were included in this study; peak velocities and anteroposterior diameters of the IVC and peak velocities and transverse diameters of the RCFV were measured using ultrasound before anesthesia. The primary outcome was the ultrasound measurements of IVC and RCFV acquired before spinal anesthesia and their association with post-spinal hypotension. Hypotension was defined as a drop in systolic arterial pressure by > 20% from the baseline. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to identify the association between the measurements of IVC, RCFV, and post-spinal hypotension during cesarean delivery. Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to test the abilities of the identified parameters to predict post-spinal hypotension; the areas under the curve and optimum cut-off values for the predictive parameters were calculated., Results: A longer transverse diameter of the RCFV was associated with the occurrence of post-spinal hypotension (odds ratio = 2.022, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.261-3.243). The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve for the prediction of post-spinal hypotension was 0.759 (95% CI 0.628-0.890, P = 0.001). A transverse diameter of > 12.2 mm of the RCFV could predict post-spinal hypotension during cesarean delivery., Conclusions: A longer transverse diameter of RCFV was associated with hypotension and could predict parturients at a major risk of hypotension before anesthesia., Trial Registration: This study was registered at http://www.chictr.org.cn on 16, May, 2018. No. ChiCTR1800016163 .

Objective: To clarify the role of clinical anatomy of foot and ankle perforator veins (PV) in surgical treatment of varicose vein disease., Material and Methods: Anatomy of foot and ankle PV was assessed in 50 amputated lower extremities by anatomical dissection., Results: There were 4-6 PVs at the medial surface of the foot. These veins connected medial marginal vein and vv. plantaris medialis (VPM). There were 2-3 PVs at the lateral surface of the foot. These veins connected lateral marginal vein and vv. plantaris lateralis (VPL). All PVs on the lateral surface of the foot constitute the neurovascular bundles. PVs flowing into vv. dorsalis pedis are localized on the medial surface of the medial marginal vein at the level of the ankle base. In most cases, we found an arterial branch nearby at the subfascial level. In anterior part of the plantar surface of the foot, we distinguished 4-5 small PVs (~1 mm) flowing into vv. digitales plantares through the commissural orifices of the aponeurosis. There were 6-9 vessels (~1 mm) along the fascial aponeurotic septa. These vessels connected superficial plantar venous network and plantar veins. Small arterial branch was found almost in all cases near these veins. Noteworthy is the area where the plantar veins lie on the quadratus plantae and are covered by a leaf of deep plantar fascia. This anatomy is similar to topography of posterior tibial veins., Conclusion: Foot perforator veins constitute the neurovascular bundles as a rule. Plantar vein topography and their relationship with PV confirm an existence of muscular-venous pump of the foot.

Objectives: Recurrent varicose veins after surgery are a frequent burden and the saphenofemoral junction is the most common source of reflux. Pre-existing branches of the common femoral vein near the saphenofemoral junction, which may increase due to haemodynamic or other reasons, could play a role in the development of recurrent varices. There exist only a few anatomical data about the prevalence of these minor venous tributaries of the common femoral vein near the saphenofemoral junction. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate their frequency and distribution., Method: A total of 59 veins from 35 anatomical donors were dissected. The common femoral vein with the adherent parts of the profunda femoris vein and the great saphenous vein was exposed and analysed ex situ. The number of minor tributaries to the common femoral vein was counted and their distances to the saphenofemoral junction as well their diameters were measured., Results: We could identify up to 10 minor tributaries of the common femoral vein below the level of the great saphenous vein as far as 6 cm distally and up to four veins above the level as far as 5 cm proximally. The mean diameters of these vessels ranged from 0.5 to 11.7 mm. Most of these vessels were located near the saphenofemoral junction and 3 cm distally. Directly opposite to the opening of the great saphenous vein we could find at least one minor tributary of the common femoral vein in 57%., Conclusions: There exist a vast number of minor tributaries of the common femoral vein and they are mainly located near the saphenofemoral junction. Nevertheless, their role in the development of recurrent varices is still unclear and further studies are necessary.

Purpose: The direct anterior approach for primary total hip arthroplasty (THA) has become increasingly popular in recent years. Nerve compression or traction with a retractor is a common cause of nerve injury in this approach. The purpose of this cadaveric study was to evaluate the anatomic relationship of the femoral neurovascular bundle to the anterior acetabular retractor during direct anterior approach THA., Methods: Eleven fresh-frozen cadavers underwent a standard direct anterior THA, with placement of an anterior acetabular retractor in the usual fashion between the iliopsoas and acetabulum for visualization during acetabular preparation. Careful dissection of the femoral triangle was performed, and the distances from the anterior retractor tip to the femoral nerve, artery, and vein were recorded and analyzed as mean distance ± standard deviation., Results: In all 11 cadavers, the retractor tip was medial to the femoral nerve. The mean distance from retractor tip to femoral artery and vein was 5.9 mm (SD = 5.5, range 0-20) and 12.6 mm (SD 0.7, range 0-35), respectively., Conclusions: Surgeons should be aware of the proximity of the neurovascular structures in relation to the anterior acetabular retractor in the direct anterior approach, taking care to avoid perforating the iliopsoas muscle during retractor insertion and limit excessive traction to prevent nerve injury.

Background: Since the femoral artery frequently overlaps the femoral vein, femoral central venous catheterization carries the risk of arterial puncture in pediatric patients., Aims: We evaluated the angle range of leg abduction with external hip rotation to minimize the overlap between the femoral artery and vein in pediatric patients undergoing general anesthesia., Methods: Eighty-two pediatric patients who underwent elective surgery with general anesthesia were enrolled in this study. Using ultrasonography, patients were divided into groups N (patients with non-overlap) and O (patients with continuing overlap) based on the presence of non-overlap range between the femoral artery and vein. The range minimizing the overlap was defined as the range without overlap in group N and as the range presenting the overlap that was less-than-half of the radius of the femoral vein in group O. By increasing the angle of leg abduction with external hip rotation, the starting and ending angles minimizing the overlap were found using ultrasonographic images., Results: The angle range of leg abduction with external hip rotation minimizing the overlap between the femoral artery and vein was defined as the range from the maximum 99% confidence interval of starting angles to the minimum 99% confidence interval of ending angles, which was between 45° and 65° in group N and between 48° and 58° in group O, respectively., Conclusion: Positioning patients in a range of 48° and 58° leg abduction with external hip rotation can minimize the overlap between the femoral artery and vein. However, the clinical usefulness of this positioning for femoral venous catheterization remains to be seen., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: In adults and children, current guidelines recommend measuring the diameter of the vein before the insertion of central catheters, in order to match vein diameter with catheter caliber and thus reduce the risk of venous thrombosis. In the neonatal intensive care unit, central catheters are often used but the vein diameter is usually not considered., Method: We assessed the diameter of the most relevant deep veins in 100 newborns, using a strict protocol of ultrasound evaluation., Results: Mean gestational age of studied infants was 32 weeks and mean weight was 1,690 g. The mean diameter of the brachiocephalic vein was consistently ≥3 mm, with no significant difference between the right and the left side. The femoral vein diameter, on the other hand, was considerably smaller than 3 mm for infants with a weight < 2,000 g. Interobserver repeatability was found to be very high., Conclusion: Preprocedural ultrasound scan of veins is feasible and easy, also in newborns, and it should be recommended for optimizing central venous catheterization., (© 2019 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The femoral vein (FV) is a clinically important vessel. Failure of its valves can lead to chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) with severe manifestations such as painful ulcers. Although they are crucial for identifying suitable implant sites for therapeutic valves, studies on the topography of FV tributaries and valves are rare. Moreover, the femoral vein diameter (FVD) must be known to assess the morphometric requirements for valve implants. To reassess the anatomical requirements for valve implants, 155 FVs from 82 human corpses were examined. FVDs and tributary and valve topographies were assessed using a laboratory straightedge. The FVD increased from 6 mm in the distal femoropopliteal vein to 11 mm in the iliofemoral vein proximal to the saphenofemoral junction (SFJ). Diameters were significantly bigger in males than females. Height correlated positively with FVD. Distal to the SFJ, within a distance of 38 cm, one to eight valves were present. Up to two valves were present within 10 cm proximal to the SFJ. Individual tributary and valve topography must be considered to ensure appropriate design and successful implantation of a venous valve for CVI therapy in the FV. A suitable implant site would be proximal to the SFJ via an infrainguinal transfemoral access. Clin. Anat. 31:1065-1076, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The cardiovascular system plays a crucial role in thermoregulation. Deep core veins, due to their large size and role in returning blood to the heart, are an important part of this system. The response of veins to increasing core temperature has not been adequately studied in vivo. Our objective was to noninvasively quantify in C57BL/6 mice the response of artery-vein pairs to increases in body temperature. Adult male mice were anesthetized and underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Data were acquired from three colocalized vessel pairs (the neck [carotid/jugular], torso [aorta/inferior vena cava (IVC)], periphery [femoral artery/vein]) at core temperatures of 35, 36, 37, and 38°C. Cross-sectional area increased with increasing temperature for all vessels, excluding the carotid. Average area of the jugular, aorta, femoral artery, and vein linearly increased with temperature (0.10, 0.017, 0.017, and 0.027 mm 2 /°C, respectively; P < 0.05). On average, the IVC has the largest venous response for area (18.2%/°C, vs. jugular 9.0 and femoral 10.9%/°C). Increases in core temperature from 35 to 38 °C resulted in an increase in contact length between the aorta/IVC of 29.3% (P = 0.007) and between the femoral artery/vein of 28.0% (P = 0.03). Previously unidentified increases in the IVC area due to increasing core temperature are biologically important because they may affect conductive and convective heat transfer. Vascular response to temperature varied based on location and vessel type. Leveraging noninvasive methodology to quantify vascular responses to temperature could be combined with bioheat modeling to improve understanding of thermoregulation., (© 2018 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society.)

Objective: To measure the depth (D p ) and diameter (D m ) of the internal jugular vein (IJV), femoral vein (FV), and femoral artery (FA) in pediatric patients to evaluate the clinical implications., Methods: This study included 125 pediatric patients. All of them underwent bilateral ultrasound study of vessels and were classified into three groups based on anthropometric and demographic parameters., Results: Measured mean D p values were: 0.72 (0.34) cm for the FA, 0.79 (0.35) cm for the FV, and 0.77 (0.24) cm for the IJV. Mean antero-posterior D m values were: 0.37 (0.17) cm for the FA, 0.42 (0.22) cm for the FV, and 0.59 (0.23) cm for the IJV. D p and D m increased with age (A), weight (W), height (H), and body surface area (BSA). In the lower ranges of these variables, D p was similar for all three studied vessels (0.6-0.7 cm). In the higher ranges, femoral vessel D p values (1.1-1.2 cm) were larger than jugular ones (0.9 cm). Additionally, in these low ranges, IJV D m values were larger than femoral ones (0.45-0.50 vs. 0.25 cm). In the higher ranges, diameter values were similar (0.6-0.7 cm)., Conclusions: In pediatric patients, major vessels can be located and their depth and diameter measured by vascular ultrasound. In younger patients, jugular and femoral vessels had similar depth values; in older ones, they had similar diameters. Ultrasound measurements in pediatric patients could facilitate the choice of the vessel to be cannulated, the catheter diameter, and the length of the needle to be used. Vascular canalization of IJV may be recommended as the first choice because of its low depth and large diameter.

Aim: Micro-vascular anastomosis is a difficult art. It can be learnt and perfected only by practice using vessels of small animals in the laboratory. The purpose of the study was to practice various anastomotic techniques using rat femoral vessels and study the patency rates., Material and Methods: Sixty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were used in the study. The following procedures were conducted on rat femoral vessels; Femoral artery end-to-end anastomosis- classical method, one way up method, Femoral vein end-to-end anastomosis and end-to-side anastomosis. The animals were subsequently sacrificed at a later date to assess delayed patency., Results: The immediate patency rates for femoral artery end-to-end anastomosis- classical method (n=10), one way up method (n=16), femoral vein end-to-end anastomosis (n=12) and end-to-side anastomosis (n=26) were 100%, 81.3%, 58.3% and 53.8% respectively. The delayed patency rates (Mean follow-up=3.6 months) were 66.7%, 69.2%, 83.3% and 16% respectively. The clamp duration and suturing time significantly decreased and patency rates improved significantly in the latter half of the study., Conclusion: The clamp duration, suturing time and patency rates improved considerably with time. The need of the hour is to establish well-planned training programs in centers with Animal Research facilities. This will promote younger colleagues and trainees to take up and perfect this difficult art. The present work could be used as a baseline study in this direction.

A minimally invasive ventricular assist device is under development for percutaneous insertion into the left atrium via transseptal access from the right atrium (RA). This study aimed to mathematically describe the vascular anatomy along possible insertion pathways to determine the device's maximum outer dimensions. We developed 2-dimensional mathematical models describing the vascular anatomy to the RA from three access points: subclavian vein (SCV), internal jugular vein (IJV), and femoral vein (FV). All pathways terminated by turning from the superior or inferior vena cava (SVC/IVC) into the RA. The model equations were based on restriction points in the pathways and were solved using anatomic size values 1 SD below published mean values so that the device will accommodate most patients. Vessels were considered rigid so that vessel deformation (and therefore risk) is minimized during device insertion. Maximum device length was calculated for a range of device diameters. The length at the most constraining angle in each turn was the maximum allowable device length. The least restrictive pathway was from the right FV, the turn from the IVC through the atrial septum being the most restrictive point. For a 10-mm diameter device, the length restriction for this pathway was 45 mm, whereas those for the right IJV and SCV were 42 and 21 mm, respectively. Medical device developers can apply these models to determine size specifications of new devices, whereas interventional physicians can apply them to determine if an existing device is appropriate for an individual patient.

Objectives: To estimate, on the basis of anthropometric and demographic variables, the depth (Dp) and diameter (Dm) of femoral and jugular vessels, which have been located and measured by ultrasound, in pediatric patients., Method: 750 measurements of Dp and Dm of the femoral vein (FV), femoral artery (FA) and internal jugular vein (IJV) were made in 125 pediatric patients. The values were correlated with patients' sex, weight, age, size and body surface area (BSA)., Results: Mean Dp values were 0.72 (0.34) cm for FA, 0.79 (0.35) cm for FV and 0.77 (0.24) cm for IJV. Mean antero-posterior Dm values were 0.37 (0.17) cm for FA, 0.42 (0.22) cm for FV and 0.59 (0.23) cm for IJV. In the studied pediatric patients, femoral and jugular vessels depth correlated with age, size, weight and BSA ( R  = 0.46-0.60); vascular depth could be estimated from patients' weight and size (FA-Dp: R  = 0.71; FV-Dp: R  = 0.72; IJV-Dp: R  = 0.53). Correlation with diameter was better for FA and FV ( R  = 0.81-0.89) than for IJV ( R  = 0.42-0.51); vascular diameter could be estimated from patient's size (FA-Dm: R  = 0.89; FV-Dm: R  = 0.86; IJV-Dm: R  = 0.52)., Conclusions: FV, FA and IJV depth and diameter correlated with weight, size, age and body surface area in the studied pediatric patients. Correlation was better for femoral than for jugular vessels. Depth could be estimated from patients' weight and size, while diameter could be estimated from the size. Such estimations may facilitate the choice of vessels to be cannulated, length and diameter of cannulation needles and the diameter of catheters to be used in pediatric patients.

Background Understanding the anatomy of the lower extremity veins is essential for successful varicose vein treatment. Computed tomography (CT) venography may be used to obtain a comprehensive overview and detailed information regarding this. Purpose To describe anatomic variations of the lower extremity venous system in patients with varicose veins, using three-dimensional (3D) CT venography. Material and Methods A total of 810 limbs in 405 patients with suspected varicose veins were prospectively referred to undertake CT venography and included in our study population retrospectively. The CT venography images were evaluated by consensus of two cardiovascular radiologists. Anatomical variations of the lower extremity venous system and their incidence were analyzed. Specifically, the number of tributaries at saphenofemoral junction, relative location of the great saphenous vein (GSV) with respect to the common femoral artery bifurcation, pattern of saphenopopliteal junction, and end of thigh extension from the small saphenous vein (SSV) were assessed. Results The most frequent number of tributaries joining the GSV was four (44.4%, 360/810). Only 0.7% (6/810) of the limbs demonstrated unusual location of the GSV between the bifurcated superficial and deep femoral arteries. The most common pattern of veins at the saphenopopliteal junction was a larger caliber of saphenopopliteal junction than thigh extension from SSV (43.8%, 355/810), end of which joining the femoral vein directly (41.0%, 288/703). Conclusion CT venography with 3D reconstruction can be used to understand the anatomy of lower extremity veins and how their variations contribute to varicose veins.

Background: The purpose of this study was to in- vestigate the changes in the femoral vein (FV) diam- eter and the positional relationship during lower limb flexion using ultrasonography., Methods: Twenty five male healthy volunteers were positioned in the supine and the hip joint was flexed to the target angles, followed by external rota- tion and abduction of the hip joint (hemi-frog-leg posi- tion). The flexion angle of the hip joint was mea- sured: before flexion (control), and at 30', 450, 60*, 75* flexion. The ultrasonograph transducer was held over the line which was 2 cm distal and parallel to the inguinal ligament Results: Compared with controls, the distance from the skin to the anterior wall of the FV was signifi- cantly shorter at 30 (15.1 mm vs 13.3 mm, P<0.01) and longer at 75" (15.1 mm vs 16.4 mm, P<0.03). The exposed width of the FV (length not overlapped by the femoral artery) was longest at 300(9.9 mm vs 12.1 mm, P<0.01)., Conclusions: This study demonstrated that the hemi-frog-leg position was associated with significant increases in the diameter and exposed width of the FV. In particular, the most effective angle of the hip joint flexion was about 30*.

Objective: The aim of the present study was to show the feasibility and describe the first results of a 3D reconstruction of the venous network of the lower limbs in human fetus using the computer-assisted anatomical dissection (CAAD) technique., Materials and Methods: We used limbs from two human fetuses, respectively, 14 and 15 weeks gestation old. Specimens were fixed in 10% formalin, embedded in paraffin wax and serially sectioned at 10 m. The histological slices were stained using HES and Masson Trichrome for soft tissues identification. Immunolabeling techniques using the Protein S-100 marker and the D2-40 marker were used to identify nerves and vessels, respectively. Stained slices were aligned manually, labeled and digitalized. The segmentation of all anatomical structures was achieved using the WinSurf(®) software after manual drawing., Results: A 3D interactive vectorial model of the whole leg, including skin, bone, muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves was obtained. In all limbs, we observed the presence of a big axial vein traveling along the sciatic nerve. In addition, the femoral vein appeared as a small plexus. Although this is a common anatomical feature at the end of organogenesis, this feature is observed in only 9% of adults. Usually interpreted as an "anatomical variation of the femoral vein" it should be considered as a light truncular malformation. These observations bring further support to our proposed "angio-guiding nerves" hypothesis., Conclusion: This preliminary study shows that the CAAD technique provided an accurate 3D reconstruction of the fetal leg veins anatomy. It should bring a new insight for the understanding of the different steps of development of the human venous system.

The surface anatomy of the saphenofemoral junction (SFJ) is especially relevant to surgeons. It is variably described in contemporary anatomy and clinical texts but is usually stated to lie 2.5-4 cm below and lateral to the pubic tubercle. The aim of this study was to map the SFJ accurately in healthy adults using ultrasound. One hundred healthy adults (mean age 27 years; 64 men) were scanned by an experienced sonographer using a 13-5 MHz linear probe. The center of the SFJ was recorded bilaterally in relation to the most superficial point of the pubic tubercle. The SFJ was readily identified in all participants. Its center was a mean of 2.4 ± 0.6 cm lateral (range 1-4.5 cm) and 1 ± 0.9 cm inferior to the pubic tubercle (range 2.5 above to 4 cm caudal to it). The junction was inferior to the pubic tubercle in 90% of lower limbs and at or above that level in 10%. In men, the SFJ was a mean of 2.6 cm lateral to the pubic tubercle and 1.2 cm inferior to it, compared with 2.2 and 0.6 cm, respectively, in women (P < 0.001). The SFJ was also slightly nearer the pubic tubercle in younger and thinner participants (P < 0.01). The center of the SFJ lies in a square extending 1-4 cm lateral and up to 3 cm below the pubic tubercle in >90% of adults. The junction is slightly closer to the pubic tubercle in women. These results provide a more robust guide to the surface anatomy of the normal SFJ., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Femoral venous access is an essential part of patient care in the emergency department (ED). However, current medical literature and texts have not dealt with it much using actual patient anatomy., Objectives: This study aimed to show that manipulation of the lower extremities may alter the anatomy to a more favorable position for cannulation., Methods: Ultrasound examination was conducted on a prospective sample of ED patients to evaluate anatomical variance of the femoral artery and vein overlap as well as the change in femoral vein diameter with leg position. Bilateral measurements of the diameter of the vein were taken at three different leg positions (straight, abduction, and abduction with external rotation)., Results: This study enrolled a total of 132 ED patients. Of these, 122 (92%) patients showed some degree of overlap on the right and 126 (95%) patients showed some degree of overlap on the left. There was a statistically significant decrease in the percentage of overlap when moving the leg from a straightened position to an abducted position, and an additional decrease when moving the leg into an abducted and externally rotated position. There was also a statistically significant increase in the size of the femoral vein with each of these positions., Conclusions: Up to 95% of people have some degree of overlap of the femoral vein by the femoral artery. By positioning the leg in an abducted and externally rotated position, the amount of overlap is reduced and the diameter of the vein is increased, maximizing the percentage of the vein available for cannulation., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The aim of our study was to describe the anatomic relationships in internal jugular (IJV), subclavian (SCV), and femoral (FV) vein sites., Methods: One hundred and forty-two children had a two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound (US) evaluation of IJV, SCV, and FV sites. They were enrolled according to their age: 0-1 month old (n=9), 1 month old to 2 yr old (n=61), 2-6 yr old (n=22), 6-12 yr old (n=32), and 12-18 yr old (n=18)., Results: We found about 7.7% variation for the IJV. The most common anatomic variations were a lateral (nine children) or anterior (nine children) position of the IJV to the carotid artery. Regardless of the age category, about 9.8% of the anatomic variations were found for the FV. The most common anatomic variation in our study was that the FV ran anteromedially to the femoral artery (17 children). Anatomic variation of the SCV, regardless of age category, was about 7.4%. The most common anatomic variation was the SCV, which ran medially (10 children) to the subclavian artery., Conclusions: The relevant percentages of anatomic variations obtained for all these areas support at least a systematic US screening before attempting to obtain central venous access, ideally using a US-guided technique.

It is generally accepted that vessel cannulation is technically more difficult and results in more complications in neonates. A sound anatomical knowledge of the inguinal area is therefore important in the selection of appropriately sized central line catheters as well as the approach to central vessel access. Eleven stillborns were investigated. Birth weight (mean: 2,414 g, 900-4,100 g) and gestational age (mean 34 1/7 weeks', 27 6/7-42 1/7) varied within normal range. The outer diameters of the femoral artery (FA), femoral vein (FV), and great saphenous vein (GSV) were determined. The distance between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic tubercle was set as 100% and the vessel intersection points were calculated as percentage values of the inguinal ligament length, starting at the iliac spine. The FA has a diameter of 1.9 ± 0.5 mm without correlation to gestational age. The FA crosses the inguinal ligament centrally. The FV has a diameter of 3.1 ± 1.0 mm and does have correlation to gestational age. The FV crosses the inguinal ligament at 63-64%. The GSV has a diameter of 1.4 ± 0.7 mm. Its point of intersection at the level of the inguinal ligament is 68-70%. We conclude that cannulation of the femoral artery or vein should not be performed too far (<1 cm) from the inguinal ligament. The course of the GSV is not suitable for catheter insertion., (Copyright © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Although multiple factors can lead to free flap failure, vessel-related accidents are the most important. Many methods have been developed (both intraoperative and postoperative) to prevent vessel-related complications. In this article, we study the effects of a "preoperative treatment" using botulinum toxin B that could enhance the velocity and blood flow of vascular pedicles and decrease vascular accidents., Methods: Ten Sprague-Dawley rats were pretreated with botulinum toxin type B at the perivascular area of the femoral vessel. Ten other rats were injected with saline as a control group. After 3 days, pedicle diameter and the peak mean frequency of blood in the pedicle were measured using laser Doppler flowmetry, and the peak mean blood velocity was calculated. We performed a "pedicle division and reanastomosis" operation to compare changes in vessel diameter and peak mean blood velocity., Results: Vessel diameter was significantly increased in the botox-pretreated group for both veins and arteries. A comparison of the deep femoral vein and artery blood velocities showed that the peak mean velocity was significantly higher in the botox group. The average increase in blood velocity was significantly larger in the botox group., Conclusions: Botulinum toxin B is helpful by influencing the microvascular environment through an increase in the blood velocity of the pedicle.

Purpose: The objective was to check if 520 days in confinement (MARS 500), may affect the main peripheral arterial diameter and wall thickness and the main vein size., Method: Common carotid (CC) femoral artery (FA) portal vein (PV), jugular (JG), femoral vein (FV) and tibial vein were assessed during MARS 500 by echography, performed by the subjects. A hand free volumic echographic capture method and a delayed 3D reconstruction software developed by our lab were used for collecting and measuring the vascular parameters., Results: During the MARS 500 experiment the subjects performed 6 sessions among which 80% of the echographic data were of sufficient quality to be processed. No significant change was found for the Common carotid, Jugular vein, femoral artery, femoral vein, portal vein, and tibial vein diameter. CC and FA IMT (intima media thickness) were found significantly increased (14% to 28% P<0.05) in all the 6 subjects, during the confinement period and also at +2 days after the confinement period, but there was no significant difference 6 month later compare to pre MARS 500., Conclusion: The experiment confirmed that even untrained to performing echography the subjects were able to capture enough echographic data to reconstruct the vessel image from which the parameters were measured. The increase in both CC and FA IMT should be in relation with the stress generated by the confined environment or absence of solar radiation, as there was no change in gravity, temperature and air in the MARS 500 module, and minor changes in physical exercise and nutrition.

The boundaries and contents of femoral triangle constitute an important lesson in gross anatomy teaching to undergraduate medical students. Apart from this, the normal disposition of the femoral vessels in the femoral triangle is vital for planning certain operating maneuvers in this region. Femoral vessels are very frequently utilized, during various surgical and clinical procedures. Thus, the precise knowledge of the normal anatomy as well as the variations in the femoral vessels is important for surgeons and anatomists. We report a unilateral variation in the disposition of femoral vessels in the femoral triangle, in a 42 yr old male formalin- preserved cadaver. The femoral artery traversed anterior to femoral vein to occupy a medial position in close proximity to the Sapheno-femoral junction. The embryological and clinical implications of the observed variation are discussed.

Central venous catheterisation is a commonly performed procedure in anaesthesia, critical care, acute and emergency medicine. Traditionally, subclavian venous catheterisation has been performed using the landmark technique and because of the complications associated with this technique, it is not commonly performed in the United Kingdom - where the accepted practice is ultrasound-guided internal jugular vein catheterisation. Subclavian vein catheterisation offers particular advantages over the internal jugular and femoral vein sites such as reduced rates of line-related sepsis, improved patient comfort and swifter access in trauma situations where the internal jugular vein may not be easily accessible. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest a potential emerging role for ultrasound-guided subclavian vein catheterisation. Barriers to this approach include many physicians still believing that the clavicle obscures imaging of the vein. In this article, we review the evidence supporting ultrasound-guided subclavian vein catheterisation and ask the question whether, in view of it potential advantages, it could be the way forward?, (© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Even though the item 'saphenofemoral junction' (SFJ) is anatomically well defined, the incontinence of the SFJ is often incompetently described in clinical practice and studies. Especially with regard to the optimal therapy of the great saphenous vein, it might be of importance to have a more distinct regard to the SFJ as it is known that about 10-30% of the saphenous refluxes have no femoral origin. Considering the terminal and preterminal valve three types of incompetence of the SFJ may be differentiated: Type 1: Incompetent terminal, but competent preterminal valve; Type 2: Competent terminal, but incompetent preterminal valve; Type 3: Incompetent terminal and preterminal valve (complete incompetence). A review on prior studies and reports leads to the assumption that the differentiation of the distinct types of SFJ-incompetence allows a more individual and - perhaps - more effective therapy. Finally, studies are necessary to evaluate the here given new concept.

Purpose: Quantify the volume and diameter of veins in the lower limbs of primigravidae and associate the presence of venous signs and symptoms with the vascular measurements., Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed 64 lower limbs of 32 healthy women of whom 16 were primigravidae between 22 and 36 weeks pregnant, and 16 nulligravidae. The women were submitted to physical assessment, air plethysmography and vascular ultrasound. The volumes and diameters of the main veins in the lower limbs were compared between pregnant and non-pregnant women. In the group of pregnant women, the attempt was also made to associate such measurements to the presence of vascular signs and symptoms., Results: The average venous volume of the lower limbs (110.1 ± 30.2 and 94.7 ± 27.3 mL; p = 0.036), as well as the diameters of the common femoral (12.72 ± 2.27 and 10.14 ± 1.24 mm; p < 0.0001), saphenous (4.81 ± 1.15 and 3.55 ± 0.98 mm; p < 0.0001) and popliteal (6.87 ± 1.68 and 5.36 ± 1.07 mm; p < 0.0001) veins were, respectively, greater in the pregnant women compared with the control group. In pregnant women with venous stasis symptoms, a venous diameter of the saphenous vein compared to those without no symptoms (5.05 ± 1.19 and 4.09 ± 0.70 mm; p = 0.011) was noted., Conclusions: Anatomical and functional changes in the venous system during pregnancy were detected by the air plethysmography and the vascular ultrasound in primigravidae. In pregnant women, the presence of venous stasis symptoms found an anatomical and functional substrate detected in the differences in diameter of the saphenous vein.

Background: Central venous catheters are often required in emergency rooms and intensive care and/or those undergoing major surgical procedures. In this study, we aimed to gain a better understanding of the anatomy of the femoral vessel in relation to central venous cannulation., Methods: The right and left (total of 180) femoral veins (FVs) of 90 consecutive pediatric patients were retrospectively evaluated using computed tomography images. Patients were divided into two groups according to their age: group 1, patients up to 9 years of age; and group 2, patients between 9 and 16 years of age., Results: The position and overlap of femoral artery (FA) to FV are significantly different between the left and right sides in both groups (P = 0.001). The left FV was most commonly located medial to the FA. However, the right FV was most commonly located posterior-medial to the FA. The incidence of overlap of the FA over the FV was significantly lower at the left side in both groups., Conclusion: The incidence of overlap of the FA over the FV was significantly lower at the left side in pediatric patients. This finding was similar between the patients aged 2-8 years and those aged 9-16 years and may have significant clinical implications. Guiding clinicians to select the left FV of children for cannulation may result in lower arterial puncture rates while accessing the central vein., (© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Anatomical variations in the femoral vein are of great clinical importance especially in cases of deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Knowledge of the variable anatomy of the femoral vein is important to minimise false-negative findings on ultrasound examination in patients with DVT and help to explain the 'silent' DVT. Furthermore, the presence of a duplicated femoral vein itself is associated with higher incidence of DVT. These venous anomalies are usually due to the truncular venous malformation. In the present study, while dissecting the right lower limb, we found a case of variation of the femoral vein. In this case, besides a duplicated femoral vein, we also noticed a 3rd interconnecting channel near the apex of the femoral triangle joining the two veins. This variation has not been reported previously by other authors. Considering its uniqueness and clinical importance, we decided to report this case.

Capuchin monkeys are known to exhibit sporadic bipedalism while performing specific tasks, such as cracking nuts. The bipedal posture and locomotion cause an increase in the metabolic cost and therefore increased blood supply to lower limbs is necessary. Here, we present a detailed anatomical description of the capuchin arteries and veins of the pelvic limb of Sapajus libidinosus in comparison with other primates. The arterial pattern of the bearded capuchin hind limb is more similar to other quadrupedal Cebus species. Similarities were also found to the pattern observed in the quadruped Papio, which is probably due to a comparable pelvis and the presence of the tail. Sapajus' traits show fewer similarities when compared to great apes and modern humans. Moreover, the bearded capuchin showed unique patterns for the femoral and the short saphenous veins. Although this species switches easily from quadrupedal to bipedal postures, our results indicate that the bearded capuchin has no specific or differential features that support extended bipedal posture and locomotion. Thus, the explanation for the behavioral differences found among capuchin genera probably includes other aspects of their physiology.

During the routine gross anatomical dissection of the right inguinal region of a 45-year-old male cadaver, a variation was observed both in the inferior epigastric artery and the inferior epigastric vein. In this case, the right inferior epigastric artery originated from the femoral artery 13 mm inferior to the inguinal ligament. Additionally, in this cadaver, the single right inferior epigastric vein drained into femoral vein 8 mm inferior to the inguinal ligament. The distal origin of the inferior epigastric artery from the femoral artery and the lower drainage of the single inferior epigastric vein to the femoral vein must be taken into consideration by surgeons.

Purpose: Different pathologies leading to psoas tendon pain and chronic bursitis of the greater trochanter are well known. The purpose of the study was to underline the accessibility of the psoas tendon at lesser trochanter, reproduce the results and measure the distances to anatomical landmarks., Methods: Twelve hips of six human cadavers underwent hip arthroscopy. The accessibility of the iliopsoas tendon at the lesser trochanter and the bursa at the greater trochanter was documented with the camera. In addition to the usual access portals, alternative ventral ports were analysed concerning accessibility of the lesser trochanter. Afterwards, arthroscopy needles were placed along the extra-articular portals followed by dissection. The distances of the portals in relation to important anatomical landmarks were analysed., Results: The accessibility to the iliopsoas tendon at the lesser trochanter and to the bursa at the greater trochanter throughout the conventional portals was reproducible. Sufficient distances to the important anatomical landmarks could be shown. The mean distance of the distal ventro-lateral and the wide distal ventro-lateral portal to the nervous cutaneous femoris lateralis was 26.8 ± 5.4 mm and 32.2 ± 3.9 mm. The mean distance from the more ventral located portals to the nervous arteria and vena femoralis was 28.3 ± 2.1 mm., Conclusion: This is the first study known to us that describes in detail the accessibility of the extra-articular structures underlined by anatomical preparation. In addition, it was demonstrated that a more ventrally located portal had sufficient distance to the important neurovascular structures of the ventral femur and can also be used in addendum if necessary.

Objective: To determine if external rotation of the leg increases the size and accessibility of the femoral vein compared with a neutral position., Methods: One hundred patients presenting to a tertiary teaching hospital were prospectively recruited. The right common femoral vein of each subject was scanned with a linear probe (5-10 MHz) inferior to the inguinal ligament, with the leg in a neutral position and then in the externally rotated position. The transverse diameter of the femoral vein, the accessible diameter of the vein (lying medial to the femoral artery) and the depth of the vein were measured., Results: The mean diameter of the femoral vein in the externally rotated leg was greater than with the leg in the neutral position (15.4 mm vs 13.8 mm); the mean difference was 1.6 mm (95% CI 1.3-1.9). The mean accessible diameter of the femoral vein was larger with the leg externally rotated (13.8 mm vs 11.7 mm, mean difference 2.1 mm, 95% CI 1.8-2.5). The depth from the skin to the femoral vein was less with the leg in external rotation (20.9 mm vs 22.6 mm, mean difference 1.7 mm, 95% CI 1.2-2.2). The mean diameter and depth were greater in patients with overweight or obese body mass index (BMI) measurements in both leg positions. The increase in femoral vein diameter and accessibility with external rotation was observed in all BMI groups., Conclusion: The total and accessible femoral vein diameter is increased and the surface depth of the vein is decreased by placing the leg in external rotation compared with the neutral position., (© 2012 The Authors. EMA © 2012 Australasian College for Emergency Medicine and Australasian Society for Emergency Medicine.)

Introduction: Neonates frequently require access to their central blood vessels. However, limited data exist relating to the size and the anatomical relation of the femoral and neck vessels for neonates of different postmenstrual ages., Hypothesis: 1) The size of central blood vessels increases with postmenstrual age of the neonate. 2). External rotation with abduction at the hip will decrease the degree of overlap between the femoral artery and vein. 3) The degree of overlap decreases with increasing postmenstrual age., Design: Prospective descriptive cohort study., Measurements and Main Results: Femoral and neck vessel sizes were assessed using ultrasound for three postmenstrual age groups: group A (26 ± 1 wks), group B (32 ± 1 wks), and group C (38 ± 1 wks). The degrees of overlap (major, >50% overlap; minor, ≤50% overlap; no overlap) between the femoral vessels were assessed at the level of the inguinal ligament and 1 cm below the inguinal ligament in a straight hip and in external rotation with abduction of the hip positions. A total of 52 nonconsecutive subjects (group A, seven; group B, 21; group C, 24) were studied. The mean blood vessel dimensions increased with increasing postmenstrual age. Correlation of blood vessel size to growth measurements was better in group A + group B compared to group C. Overlap between the femoral vein and the femoral artery across the neonatal age groups at the level of the inguinal ligament ranged from 57% to 79% and from 43% to 98% at 1 cm below the inguinal ligament. The degree of overlap did not decrease with positioning of the lower extremity in external rotation with abduction of the hip. In the neck blood vessels, the majority of observations showed either minor or major overlap of neck blood vessels in all three groups (group A, 79%; group B, 86%; group C, 90%)., Conclusions: Central blood vessel size increases with increasing postmenstrual age. Correlation of blood vessel size to anthropometric measurements was better in the premature neonates compared to term neonates. A high degree of overlap exists within the femoral and cervical blood vessels. In the femoral vessels, the degree of overlap did not decrease with external rotation with abduction of the hip at any postmenstrual age.

Although arteriovenous fistulae are currently the preferred form of vascular access, early failure is a significant problem. Since wall shear stress is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of early failure, and this stress varies markedly in different fistula configurations, we assessed the influence of configuration (curved or straight) on longitudinal changes of flow rate and lumen diameter in a porcine fistula model. Fistulae were created in eight pigs between the femoral artery and vein, with each animal having a curved and a straight configuration on opposite sides. Velocity measurements were obtained by ultrasound at the time of surgery and at intermediate time points up to 28 days. Quantification of both the configuration and the internal diameter of the fistulae was determined by CT scans. The overall rate of increased flow during each time interval (0 to 2 days, 2 to 7 days, and 7 to 28 days) was more pronounced with the curved fistulae. Moreover, the luminal diameter of curved fistulae had dilated more from the time of surgery to 28 days as compared to the straight fistulae. Thus, anatomical configuration of fistulae plays a major role in flow-mediated dilatation. Identifying the optimal configuration may result in increased diameter and consequently blood flow, and perhaps reduce the incidence of early failure.

Objective: The aim of this paper is to describe a simple and effective method for evaluating the quality of microvascular anastomoses performed in vitro., Methods: After the microvascular anastomosis has been performed in vitro, the vessel is cannulated at a distance of several millimeters from the anastomosis site with a catheter that is connected to a syringe filled with commercially available silicone glue. The silicone glue is slowly injected into the artery until the whole specimen is filled. Small leaks at the anastomosis site can be seen directly as the silicone glue will slowly extrude at the point of a leak. Then, the catheter is withdrawn and the specimen, filled with silicone, is left for several hours to solidify. Subsequently, the specimen is immersed in H(2)O(2) for several hours in order to dissolve the tissue from the silicone cast. In this manner, the cast of the silicone represents the virtual lumen of the blood vessel and the print of the lumen surface., Results: Using this method, several important technical aspect of the anastomosis can be easily evaluated, such as diameter differences of the blood vessel, stricture, narrowing, irregularities of the vessel wall, leakage through the anastomotic site, and the alignment of the vessel walls., Conclusion: The silicone cast method as described in this study can be used to evaluate some technical aspect of a microvascular anastomosis performed in vitro. Moreover, it can be used to monitor the progress of the trainee and as an aid in improving and mastering vascular microsurgery., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To explore the feasibility and safety of the femoral vein as a vascular graft material., Methods: A total of 114 specimens of lower limbs were harvested from 60 adult cadavers; the lower extremity femoral veins, popliteal vein, deep femoral vein, and the communicating branch were dissected and observed; the length of the available femoral vein, from the point at which deep femoral vein and femoral vein joint to the lower edge of abductor hiatus, and squash vein diameter were measured. Computed tomography venography (CTV) data from 120 patients with lower extremity femoral vein thrombosis were analysed, and the venous reflux pathway of the lower extremity was observed., Results: The average height of male was 158.3 cm, and the available length of femoral vein was (18.8 +/- 2.3) cm (relative length, 0.118 +/- 0.013), and squash vein diameter was (15.8 +/- 0.8) mm. The average height of female was 149.2 cm, and the available length of femoral vein was (15.1 +/- 1.5) cm (relative length, 0.101 +/- 0.010), and squash vein diameter was (14.0 +/- 1.1) mm. There were significant differences in the length of the available femoral vein (t = 6.354, P = 0.000) and squash vein diameter (t = 5.555, P = 0.000) between male and female. Positive correlation was found between the length of the available femoral vein and height (r = 0.964, P = 0.000). Low correlation was found between squash vein diameter and height (r = 0.382, P = 0.003). Double femoral veins were found in 16 limbs (14.0%), a femoral-popliteal vein communicating branch in 48 limbs (42.1%), a deep femoral-popliteal vein communicating branch in 38 limbs (33.3%). CTV showed that great saphenous vein, femoral-popliteal, or deep femoral-popliteal vein communicating branches had compensative capacity in patients with femoral vein thrombosis., Conclusion: It is reliable and safe to harvest femoral vein as a vascular graft because of the existence of the great saphenous vein and communicating branches between the popliteal vein and femoral vein or deep femoral vein.

Although deep venous insufficiency is common and important, the anatomy of deep vein valves is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the location, number and consistency of venous valves in the femoral and popliteal veins in normal subjects. A detailed literature search of PubMed was performed. Abstracts and selected full text articles were scrutinised and relevant studies published between 1949 and 2010 reporting anatomical details of deep vein valves were included. From 7470 articles identified by the initial search strategy, nine studies with a total of 476 legs were included in this review. All studies were cadaveric and subjects ranged from stillborn fetuses to 103 years of age. Studies suggested that femoral veins contain between one and six valves, and popliteal veins contain between zero and four valves. Deep vein valves were consistently located in the common femoral vein (within 5 cm of the inguinal ligament), the femoral vein (within 3 cm of the deep femoral vein tributary) and in the popliteal vein near the adductor hiatus. Valves are consistently located at specific locations in the deep veins of the leg, although there is often significant variability between subjects. Further anatomical and functional studies using new imaging modalities available should target these areas to identify whether certain valves play a more important role in venous disease. This may guide us in the development of new treatment options for patients with deep venous disease., (© 2011 The Authors. Journal of Anatomy © 2011 Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.)

Purpose: We conducted this prospective, observational study using ultrasound to describe the neuro-vascular relationships at the femoral crease. In particular, we sought to identify and describe the incidence of vascular structures lying lateral to the femoral artery at this level, and the frequency with which needle insertion would require adjustment to avoid contact with these vessels during femoral nerve blockade (FNB)., Methods: Twenty-five patients undergoing surgery on the knee for femoral nerve block were scanned with ultrasound in the femoral triangle region to evaluate the anatomy of the vessels in this region. Specifically, the position and course of the profunda femoral and lateral circumflex arteries, and their relationship to the site of typical FNB, were described. Depth and dimensions of the vessels and nerves were recorded. The patients' body mass indices and the depth of the femoral nerve were evaluated for correlation., Results: In 52% of the cases, the profunda femoral artery coursed lateral to the femoral artery, while in the others, it remained deep to the femoral artery. The profunda femoral artery emerged from the femoral artery above the femoral crease in 12% of the cases, and below it in the remainder, while the lateral circumflex femoral artery emerged above the crease in 8% of the patients. The site of needle insertion for FNB was adjusted to avoid vessels lateral to the femoral artery in 12% of the cases., Conclusion: Ultrasound scanning at the femoral crease in preparation for FNB reveals branches lying lateral to the main femoral artery in a significant proportion of patients, presenting a significant risk of needle contact with one of these vessels. The use of ultrasound likely reduces the risk of vascular trauma in this setting.

Objective: We wanted to describe the three-dimensional (3D) anatomic variations of the femoral vein (FV) and popliteal vein (PV) in relation to the accompanying artery using CT venography., Materials and Methods: We performed a retrospective review of 445 bilateral (890 limbs) lower limb CT venograms. After the 3D relationship between the FV and PV and accompanying artery was analyzed, the presence or absence of variation was determined and the observed variations were classified. In each patient, the extent and location of the variations and the location of the adductor hiatus were recorded to investigate the regional frequency of the variations., Results: THERE WERE FOUR DISTINCT CATEGORIES OF VARIATIONS: agenesis (3 limbs, 0.3%), multiplication (isolated in the FV: 190 limbs, 21%; isolated in the PV: 14 limbs, 2%; and in both the FV and PV: 51 limbs, 6%), anatomical course variation (75 limbs, 8%) and high union of the tibial veins (737 limbs, 83%). The course variations included medial malposition (60 limbs, 7%), anterior rotation (11 limbs, 1%) and posterior rotation (4 limbs, 0.4%). Mapping the individual variations revealed regional differences in the pattern and frequency of the variations., Conclusion: CT venography helps to confirm a high incidence of variations in the lower limb venous anatomy and it also revealed various positional venous anomalies in relation to the respective artery.

Introduction and Objectives: To validate the axillary approach as a safe and efficient option for the transcatheter aortic valve implantation in patients who have contraindication for femoral approach at three Spanish hospitals., Methods: We included patients with severe symptomatic aortic stenosis at very high or prohibitive surgical risk, selected by a multidisciplinary team, for transcatheter aortic valve implantation, and had contraindication to the femoral approach., Results: We included 19 of 186 (10.5%) patients, who were implanted a percutaneous aortic valve, between November 2008 and March 2010. The mean age was 78.3 (standard deviation [SD]±8.65) years and 73.7% were males. The mean logistic EuroSCORE was 28.7% (SD±16.3%). The procedural success rate was 100%. After the procedure the maximum transvalve gradient decreased from 81.7 mmHg (SD±21.5) to 15.8 mmHg (SD±5.5), and no patient presented residual aortic regurgitation >2. The all-cause mortality, with a mean follow-up time of 9.2 (SD±3.2) months was 10.5%, and the in-hospital and 30-day mortality rates were 0%. The global incidence of major complications due to the procedure was 15.7%. Definitive pacemaker implantation was carried out for atrioventricular block in 8 patients (44.4%)., Conclusions: The axillary approach for transcatheter aortic valve implantation using the CoreValve(®) and contraindication to the femoral approach is safe and efficient for selected patients, with excellent results in terms of success implantation and in hospital and 30-day mortality., (Copyright © 2010 Sociedad Española de Cardiología. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

During educational dissection of the left lower limb of an adult Indian male cadaver, an unusual variation of the branches of the femoral artery and profunda femoris artery (PFA), were observed. The profunda femoris artery and medial circumflex femoral artery took origin from a common arterial trunk from the medial side of femoral artery. The PFA coursed lateral to the femoral vein. The lateral circumflex femoral artery (LCFA) took origin, 1.2 cm proximal to the origin of the latter. The lateral circumflex femoral artery (LCFA) took origin directly from the femoral artery. The femoral vein was constantly medial to the PFA and coursed between it and femoral artery. The great saphenous vein was observed to course medial to the PFA and at its termination coursed anterior to the latter to drain into the femoral vein. Changes in caliber of femoral artery were recorded at the site of origin of the variant branches.

The aim of this in vivo study was to gather quantitative information on the three-dimensional morphology of a new vascular network under the influence of angioactive growth factors. For this purpose, the arteriovenous loop model was used in 10 Lewis rats to generate a bioartificial vascular assembly by means of vascular induction. In this model, an isolated organoid is created in the medial thigh of the animal by methods of tissue engineering. A fibrin gel containing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF(165)) and basic fibroblastic growth factor (bFGF) was used as a matrix in the effect group (GF+). Fibrin matrices devoid of growth factors were used as controls (GF-). A microvascular replica of the organoid was created by means of corrosion casting and the network was investigated on stereo-paired images obtained by scanning electron microscopy. Vectors of intercapillary and interbranching distances as well as the diameter of the pores in the intussusceptive events diameter and the ratio of sprouting versus intussusceptive angiogenic events were compared in the two groups. The results were highly significant. In the GF+ group there were more profound three-dimensional morphological traits of angiogenesis, whereas advanced neovascularisation in the phase of remodelling was demonstrated by a higher incidence of intussusception, compared to control. These results illustrate the importance of morphological studies with focus on the generation of three-dimensional vascular networks.

We investigated the cross-sectional area of the femoral vein and its relationship to the femoral artery at two anatomical levels, in infants and children. Sixty-six subjects were allocated to one of two groups: infants (< 1 year, n = 31) or children (1-6 years, n = 35). After induction of general anaesthesia, the femoral vein was evaluated by ultrasound with the patients' legs at 30° and 60° of abduction and their hips externally rotated. In each position, measurements were taken at the level of the inguinal crease and 1 cm below the crease. Hip rotation with 60° leg abduction decreased femoral artery overlap at the level of the inguinal crease in both infants (p = 0.013) and children (p = 0.003). Thus, the optimal place for femoral vein cannulation in paediatric patients seems to be at the level of the inguinal crease with 60° leg abduction and external hip rotation., (© 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2010 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland.)

A thoracic surgeon must have the skill to expose the femoral artery and vein, as well as the axillary artery, quickly without causing any complications. We briefly describe our method of exposing these vessels. We devised this method to reach the targeted blood vessel within the shortest time and distance, based on a sound knowledge of the surgical anatomy. To prevent postoperative lymphorrhoea. we ligate the lymphoducts during the operation.

A standard posterior approach was performed in 5 fresh frozen cadaveric limbs. An anterior incision was then used to measure the distance of the femoral neurovascular structures to the anterior capsule. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of 11 hips was also analyzed to validate our cadaveric method. Cadaveric results demonstrated that before dislocation the femoral artery and vein were closest to the anterior capsule (mean distance, 21 mm), and the femoral nerve was the furthest away (mean distance, 25 mm). These results were not significantly different from the MRI findings. When the hip was dislocated, these distances significantly increased. This study suggests that the neurovascular structures are relatively well protected during an anterior capsulotomy performed during hip resurfacing. The procedure may be safer if the capsulotomy is performed with the hip dislocated and in a flexed position while cutting the anterosuperior aspect and in an extended position while cutting the anteroinferior aspect., ((c) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)