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Understanding the dynamic changes in grape characteristics during ripening is crucial for enhancing grape quality, which, in turn, influences overall viticulture practices. This study aimed to investigate the temporal and cultivar-specific variations in grape characteristics, focusing on BAs, phenolic compounds, antioxidant enzymes, and organic acids. Our results revealed that Bozcaada Çavuşu*Kuntra and Kuntra grapes exhibited the most significant growth in size, weight, and maturity index at the final developmental stage (EL-38), while Vasilâki showed a nuanced maturation pattern with significant increases in berry width but not weight. Across all varieties, the highest maturity index and Total Soluble Solids percentages were observed at EL-38. The investigation of BAs revealed a significant decrease in Put levels from 2.62 at EL-32 to 2.04 mg L−1 at EL-38, contrasting with an increasing trend in Agm concentrations from 0.25 at EL-29 to 0.37 mg L−1 at EL-38. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Kuntra stood out with the highest Cad concentration at 2.96 mg L−1. The analysis of phenolic compounds highlighted a distinct temporal pattern for gallic acid, increasing from 1.60 at EL-29 to 3.77 g L−1 at EL-32 and maintaining stability at 3.74 g L−1 at EL-38. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki consistently exhibited higher concentrations of phenolic compounds, such as epicatechin (5.69 g L−1) and tyrosol (7.00 g L−1). Antioxidant enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase in grape cultivars showed significant temporal variations, indicating a dynamic oxidative stress response during berry ripening. Catalase activity decreased from 14.04 to 11.20 EU/gr berry between EL-29 and EL-38. The multifaceted regulation of superoxide dismutase by sampling time and cultivar highlighted the complexity of antioxidant dynamics in grapevine physiology. In conclusion, this comprehensive study sheds light on the intricate interplay of temporal and cultivar-specific factors influencing grape characteristics, providing valuable insights for optimizing viticulture practices and enhancing overall grape quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unraveling the intricate physiological and biochemical intricacies associated with female dominance in grape berries across diverse developmental stages is imperative for optimizing grape production and ensuring the attainment of high-quality yields. This study conducted a thorough analysis of grape berries across phenological stages (BBCH-79, BBCH-81, BBCH-89) and cultivars. At BBCH-89, Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki demonstrated the highest berry weight and total soluble solids (TSS) levels, emphasizing its enological potential. Acidity peaked at BBCH-79 (28.16) and declined at BBCH-89 (6.11), signaling a shift towards lower acidity in later stages. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki consistently showed the highest maturity index (MI). Mineral content variations were observed across nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), with Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki often having the highest concentrations, particularly in potassium, calcium, and boron. Hormonal analysis revealed a significant surge in concentrations at BBCH-89, with Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki standing out. Notably, Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) concentrations increased by 106%, and abscisic acid (ABA) levels peaked at BBCH-79 with a 38% increase in Bozcaada Çavuşu*Kuntra. Sugar content analysis showed variations in fructose, glucose, sucrose, rhamnose, xylose, galactose, and arabinose levels across sampling times and cultivars. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki consistently exhibited higher sugar levels, especially at BBCH-81 and BBCH-89. Vitamin concentrations varied temporally and among cultivars, with BBCH-89 displaying the highest vitamin A concentration (6.24 mg/100 g FW), and Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki often exhibiting maximum values for vitamin B1, B2, B6, and C. Further research and targeted cultivation practices focusing on the unique attributes of Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki could enhance grape production efficiency, emphasizing its potential contribution to achieving consistently high-quality yields across various phenological stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic autoimmune disease of biliary stasis in which immune factors cause the gradual destruction of small bile ducts, biliary stasis, and eventually the development of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even liver failure. One of the main characteristics of PBC is that it primarily affects middle-aged women, but the precise cause is still unknown. This article analyzes the unique causes and mechanisms of the female predominance of PBC and summarizes the potential causes.The female domination of PBC is reported to be primarily caused by sex hormones, environmental circumstances, and epigenetic changes, each of which has a different subtle impact on patients' gender disparities.

Simple Summary: Social inequality is pervasive in primates, with male-biased power often assumed as the default condition. We tested this assumption with a broad dataset and explored factors that might make some types of intersexual power more likely to evolve, such as males being larger than females and skewed sex ratios. We hypothesized that intersexual power can arise due to sex differences in fighting ability as well as economic demand for mating opportunities. We found that even though societies with power biased towards males are most common in primates, some lemurs, monkeys, and apes exhibit societies without male-biased power. Male-biased power was associated with males being larger than females and more females in social groups (i.e., high supply/low demand for females), whereas non-male-biased power was associated with low supply/high demand for mating opportunities with females. The last common ancestor of primates did not necessarily exhibit male-biased power, but the last common ancestor of monkeys, apes, and humans probably did exhibit male-biased power. Non-male-biased power probably evolved independently multiple times in primates. However, multiple traits favor male-biased power and fewer paths lead to societies with female-biased power or intersexual equality. Dominance and leverage are both possible causes of social inequality. If sexual dimorphism influences patterns of intersexual dominance, we predicted that highly dimorphic species are constrained to exhibit male-biased power (MP), but species with low sexual dimorphism are free to demonstrate a broader range of intersexual power relationships. If market effects influence intersexual leverage, we predicted that females have more power when group composition is more male-biased and estrus is asynchronous. We analyzed data on intersexual power, sexual dimorphism, expected estrous overlap, and sex ratio for 79 extant primate species using phylogenetic logistic regression and ancestral state reconstructions. Although MP is more common, every major primate clade includes non-MP species. MP was associated with greater body mass and canine length dimorphism and with female-biased sex-ratios. Low estrous overlap was associated with non-MP. Although MP was reconstructed as likely ancestral for anthropoids, the last common ancestor of this clade probably did not exhibit high sexual dimorphism. The last common ancestor of catarrhines was probably highly dimorphic, potentially constraining intersexual power relationships. Non-MP probably evolved multiple times in primates and may be less common because multiple traits are linked to MP while fewer traits are associated with female-biased power or equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unraveling the intricate physiological and biochemical intricacies associated with female dominance in grape berries across diverse developmental stages is imperative for optimizing grape production and ensuring the attainment of high-quality yields. This study conducted a thorough analysis of grape berries across phenological stages (BBCH-79, BBCH-81, BBCH-89) and cultivars. At BBCH-89, Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki demonstrated the highest berry weight and total soluble solids (TSS) levels, emphasizing its enological potential. Acidity peaked at BBCH-79 (28.16) and declined at BBCH-89 (6.11), signaling a shift towards lower acidity in later stages. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki consistently showed the highest maturity index (MI). Mineral content variations were observed across nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), with Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki often having the highest concentrations, particularly in potassium, calcium, and boron. Hormonal analysis revealed a significant surge in concentrations at BBCH-89, with Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki standing out. Notably, Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) concentrations increased by 106%, and abscisic acid (ABA) levels peaked at BBCH-79 with a 38% increase in Bozcaada Çavuşu*Kuntra. Sugar content analysis showed variations in fructose, glucose, sucrose, rhamnose, xylose, galactose, and arabinose levels across sampling times and cultivars. Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki consistently exhibited higher sugar levels, especially at BBCH-81 and BBCH-89. Vitamin concentrations varied temporally and among cultivars, with BBCH-89 displaying the highest vitamin A concentration (6.24 mg/100 g FW), and Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki often exhibiting maximum values for vitamin B1, B2, B6, and C. Further research and targeted cultivation practices focusing on the unique attributes of Bozcaada Çavuşu*Vasilâki could enhance grape production efficiency, emphasizing its potential contribution to achieving consistently high-quality yields across various phenological stages.

Dominance and leverage are both possible causes of social inequality. If sexual dimorphism influences patterns of intersexual dominance, we predicted that highly dimorphic species are constrained to exhibit male-biased power (MP), but species with low sexual dimorphism are free to demonstrate a broader range of intersexual power relationships. If market effects influence intersexual leverage, we predicted that females have more power when group composition is more male-biased and estrus is asynchronous. We analyzed data on intersexual power, sexual dimorphism, expected estrous overlap, and sex ratio for 79 extant primate species using phylogenetic logistic regression and ancestral state reconstructions. Although MP is more common, every major primate clade includes non-MP species. MP was associated with greater body mass and canine length dimorphism and with female-biased sex-ratios. Low estrous overlap was associated with non-MP. Although MP was reconstructed as likely ancestral for anthropoids, the last common ancestor of this clade probably did not exhibit high sexual dimorphism. The last common ancestor of catarrhines was probably highly dimorphic, potentially constraining intersexual power relationships. Non-MP probably evolved multiple times in primates and may be less common because multiple traits are linked to MP while fewer traits are associated with female-biased power or equality.

How social and ecological factors are associated with variation in dominance style across species of animals has been studied frequently, but the underlying processes are often not addressed. Theoretical research indicates that stronger spatial cohesion among individuals in a group causes a higher frequency of fighting and, thus, through the self-reinforcing effects of winning and losing fights, a stronger differentiation of the dominance hierarchy and dominance of females over more males. Our aim in the present paper is to study whether the same interrelationship among processes may underlie differences in dominance style among three species of lemur that differ in their degree of despotism: Lemur catta, Propithecus verreauxi and Eulemur rufifrons. We investigated their agonistic interactions and spatial cohesion based on 2752 h of observational data of 20 wild groups of these three species. We determined dominance style using the proportion of counter-aggression, with a lower proportion indicating a more despotic dominance style. We found that stronger spatial cohesion among individuals is associated with a higher rate of aggression, stronger despotism and dominance of females over more males. The results of our study emphasise the general importance of spatial cohesion in determining dominance style. Significance statement: Theoretical studies have shown that the spatial configuration of individuals in a group influences the dominance style. In an agent-based model, DomWorld, individuals are guided by simple rules of grouping and fighting and emergent patterns of behaviour switch between resembling those of despotic or egalitarian primates depending on the degree of cohesion in groups. Yet this link has seldom been studied empirically. We, therefore, examine the relevance of spatial cohesion on patterns of behaviour of individuals in groups of three species of lemur. We confirm the predictions from the model and show that stronger spatial cohesion results in more frequent aggression, a more despotic dominance style and stronger female dominance over males. In light of this, we urge future research of animal dominance to include measures of cohesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competition in group-living animals often results in a dominance hierarchy. The sex that is larger (usually the males) generally dominates the one that is smaller (the females). In certain species, however, despite being smaller, the females dominate several males. Female dominance over males may here arise from the self-reinforcing effects of winning and losing fights, the so-called winner-loser effect, as demonstrated in the model DomWorld. In the model, females may become dominant over more males when the percentage of males in the group is higher due to the higher intensity of aggression of males than females combined with the higher frequency of male–male fights. This association between female dominance and the percentage of adult males in the group has been confirmed in several primate species. Since in the model DomWorld this association requires few assumptions, it should be tested beyond primates. In the present study, we investigated it in the group-living rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), because it fulfilled most requirements. We used data on adults from six groups, collected over 20 years in natural colonies in Israel. We confirmed that body weight and intensity of aggression was greater in males than females. Three measurements indicated that females dominated ca. 70% of the males. Unexpectedly, only in the data where groups comprised several males, female dominance over males was shown to increase with male percentage, but not when including (the many) years in which groups comprised a single male. We attribute this non significance to the limited male–male interactions. One of the requirements of DomWorld is that individuals live in permanent groups, but in rock hyrax there were also bachelor males, that were not permanently associated with a group. Thus, we expected and confirmed that there was no association between the percentage of males and female dominance over males when including them. In conclusion, our results support the hypothesis that the winner-loser effect contributes to the dominance of females over males, and the association between the percentage of males in a group and female dominance over males requires an extra criterion: that most groups contain multiple males.

Female dominance, a trait common to some Malagasy lemurs, has been viewed as an adaptation that decreases intersexual feeding competition. A hypothesized relationship exists between male "deference" (male submission in the absence of female aggression) and food availability. Sauther (1993) suggested that male ring‐tailed lemurs at the Duke Lemur Center (Pereira et al., 1990) show more deference to females than do males in the wild owing to food abundance in captivity. To reexamine the link between food availability and male deference, we studied agonism and foraging in two nonwild ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta) populations: the Los Angeles Zoo and St. Catherines Island (SCI). On SCI, we collected data under two feeding conditions: Low Provisions (low food availability) and High Provisions (high food availability). As expected, male deference measures at our study sites were more similar to measures of deference from other studies of L. catta in captivity than in the wild. Additionally, the change at SCI from low to high food availability was associated with increased male deference to females. Interestingly, male proximity to females during foraging at this location did not notably change between the low to high food availability conditions, suggesting that males were food competitors of females just as often under both feeding conditions. The increase in male deference under conditions of high food availability on SCI was due to males withdrawing more rapidly from female approaches during agonistic interactions. Hence, where food is more abundant, male L. catta are more likely to show submission to females, which appears to be a self‐serving means of avoiding female aggression. Lemur males who are well‐fed appear less apt to risk female aggression to obtain resources than more nutritionally stressed males. Our results support the view of female dominance in lemurs as an adaptive evolutionary response to conditions of resource limitation. Research Highlights: As has been hypothesized for this female‐dominant species, male ring‐tailed lemurs act more submissively toward females under conditions of greater food abundance.Males more rapidly withdraw from approaches by females under conditions of greater food availability.Male "deference" to females in this species appears to be self‐serving avoidance of aggression by males, not investment in the female. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction, objectives: Craniomandibular dysfunction (CMD) is a masticatory dysfunction that can be extremely complex with several causes. The purpose of this study is to analyse based on our patient’s data in our 10-year experience the details specific to CMD. Material and method: Clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic data of 1741 patients (38 ± 19 years, 348 cases < 18 years, female/male: 3.7) were recorded according to the algorithm used in our daily practice. We also examined the incidence of each diagnosis, the types of pain onset, the risk factors for chronic diseases associated with CMD, and the effectiveness of treatment (drug, splint therapy and physiotherapy, as well as the combinations of these). Results: Clinical symptoms do not differ according to gender, but all types of CMD show strong female dominance (nearly 4-fold) and most patients are young (20–40 years). Overall, 80% of patients seek medical care within six months. The most common symptoms were parafunction (91.9%), dental contact disorder (86.9%) orofacial pain (77.2%), joint and muscle involvement (79.7% and 71.7%). The most common diseases were myalgia (31%), capsulitis + myalgia (24%), and compensated CMD (21%). The most important risk factors are orthodontic abnormalities, especially deep overbite (42%) and top bite (10%), skeletal comorbidities and occlusal differences. Complained parafunction often associated with psychological/psychosocial involvement (8.4%) and, if not, the chances of a pain sensation were halved (Odds ratio: 0.53CI95%: 0.35–0.91). Hypermobility (67%) and compensated CMD (43%), associated with several common comorbidities in which the most prevalent was the vertebral disorders. Overall, the therapies used were successful in 80% of the cases. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the complexity of CMD diagnostics and may help timely application of diagnostic and successful therapies in this predominantly juvenile, female-dominated disorder, which compromising the quality of life.

Female mammals employ reproductive strategies (e.g., internal gestation) that result in power asymmetries specific to intersexual dyads. Because the number of eggs available for fertilization at any given time for most mammals is quite limited, having a fertilizable egg is potentially an important source of economic power for females. Control over mating opportunities is a source of intersexual leverage for female Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi). We examined economic factors thought to influence the value of mating opportunities, and, thus, the extent of female leverage: kinship and market effects. Using a longitudinal dataset of agonistic interactions collected during focal animal sampling of all adult individuals in 10 social groups from 2008 to 2019, we tested the effects of relatedness, female parity, reproductive season, and adult sex ratio (population and group) on (1) the direction of submissive signaling and (2) which sex won a contested resource. While 96% of the acts of submission were directed from males toward females, females only won a third of their conflicts with males. Thus, our study has implications for evolutionary explanations of female-biased power. If female power evolved due to their greater need for food and other resources, then intersexual conflicts would be expected to result in males more consistently relinquishing control of resources. As expected, males were more likely to chatter submissively toward successful mothers, during the mating season, and when the sex ratio was male-biased. Although females generally had less power to win a conflict when their fertilizable egg was less valuable (when they were nulliparous or unsuccessful mothers or when interacting with male kin) and with an increasing female-bias in the sex ratio, this ability to win additionally was influenced by which sex initiated the conflict. Our study demonstrates that female leverage can be influenced by the supply and demand for mating opportunities, but evoking submission does not translate into winning a resource. Indeed, intersexual power is dynamic, contextual, and dependent on the individuals in the dyad.

The extant primates of Madagascar (Lemuriformes) represent the endpoints of an adaptive radiation following a single colonization event more than 50 million years ago. They have since evolved a diversity of life history traits, ecological adaptations and social systems that rivals that of all other living primates combined. Their social systems are characterized by a unique combination of traits, including the ability of adult females to dominate adult males. In fact, there is no other group of mammals in which female dominance is so widespread. Yet, recent research has indicated that there is more interspecific variation in lemur intersexual relationships than previously acknowledged. Here, we therefore review and summarize the relevant literature, quantifying the extent of sex-bias in intersexual dominance relations documented in observational and experimental studies in captivity and the wild. Female dominance is often, but not always, implemented by spontaneous male submission in the absence of female aggression and linked to female sexual maturation. We connect the available evidence to the hypotheses that have been proposed to explain the evolution of female dominance among lemurs. The occurrence of female dominance in all lemur families and the interspecific variation in its extent indicate that it has evolved soon after lemurs colonized Madagascar – presumably in response to particular ecological challenges – and that it has since been reduced in magnitude independently in some taxa. Our study contributes important comparative information on sex roles from an independent primate radiation and provides general insights into the conditions, opportunities and obstacles in the evolution of female-biased power.

The present study aims at analysing female necrophilia in relation to female dominance. In order to do so, the theory elaborated by Judith Butler in Gender Trouble on gender performativity and the studies by Harvey Sacks on Category-Bound Activities are herein employed and problematized. Therefore, the paper proposes to look at representations of female necrophilia as “cover-up” performances of gender supremacy. For the purpose of the analysis, three films that explicitly represent female necrophilia have been chosen and investigated: Kissed (1996) by Canadian director Lynne Stopkewich, Nekromantik (1987), and Nekromantik 2 (1991) by German director Jörg Buttgereit.

Abstract Background In animals with altricial offspring, most growth occurs after birth and may be optimized by post-natal maternal care. Maternal effects on growth may be influenced by individual characteristics of the mothers, such as social status, individual investment strategies and the length of association with offspring. The prolonged juvenile dependence seen in humans is a distinctive life history adaptation, which may have evolved to facilitate sustained somatic and brain growth. In chimpanzees, offspring are typically weaned at approximately 4 years old, yet immature individuals continue to associate with their mothers for up to 10 years beyond weaning. Whether this lengthy association or the individual characteristics of mothers influences growth patterns in this species is not clear. The relationship between urinary creatinine and specific gravity is an established non-invasive measure of muscle mass in humans and chimpanzees. We analysed the urinary creatinine and specific gravity of 1318 urine samples from 70 wild chimpanzees from the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast aged 4 to 15 years. Results We showed a clear increase in urinary creatinine levels with age in both males and females, replicating established growth curves in this species and reaffirming this measure as a reliable proxy for lean body mass. Comparing those who experience maternal loss (orphans) with non-orphan chimpanzees, maternal presence beyond weaning age and into late juvenility positively influenced offspring muscle mass throughout ontogeny such that orphans had significantly less muscle mass than age-matched non-orphans. In age-matched offspring with mothers, those with high-ranking mothers had greater muscle mass. Accounting for variation in muscle mass attributable to maternal presence, we found no effect of maternal investment (length of inter birth interval, from own birth to birth of following sibling) on offspring muscle mass. Conclusion Chimpanzee mothers have an extended and multi-faceted influence on offspring phenotypes. Our results suggest that maternal investment extends beyond lactation and into early adulthood and has clear benefits to offspring physical development. Therefore, prolonged juvenile dependence, although unique in its form in human societies, may be a trait with deeper evolutionary origins.

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Background: In animals with altricial offspring, most growth occurs after birth and may be optimized by post-natal maternal care. Maternal effects on growth may be influenced by individual characteristics of the mothers, such as social status, individual investment strategies and the length of association with offspring. The prolonged juvenile dependence seen in humans is a distinctive life history adaptation, which may have evolved to facilitate sustained somatic and brain growth. In chimpanzees, offspring are typically weaned at approximately 4 years old, yet immature individuals continue to associate with their mothers for up to 10 years beyond weaning. Whether this lengthy association or the individual characteristics of mothers influences growth patterns in this species is not clear. The relationship between urinary creatinine and specific gravity is an established non-invasive measure of muscle mass in humans and chimpanzees. We analysed the urinary creatinine and specific gravity of 1318 urine samples from 70 wild chimpanzees from the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast aged 4 to 15 years. Results: We showed a clear increase in urinary creatinine levels with age in both males and females, replicating established growth curves in this species and reaffirming this measure as a reliable proxy for lean body mass. Comparing those who experience maternal loss (orphans) with non-orphan chimpanzees, maternal presence beyond weaning age and into late juvenility positively influenced offspring muscle mass throughout ontogeny such that orphans had significantly less muscle mass than age-matched non-orphans. In age-matched offspring with mothers, those with high-ranking mothers had greater muscle mass. Accounting for variation in muscle mass attributable to maternal presence, we found no effect of maternal investment (length of inter birth interval, from own birth to birth of following sibling) on offspring muscle mass. Conclusion: Chimpanzee mothers have an extended and multi-faceted influence on offspring phenotypes. Our results suggest that maternal investment extends beyond lactation and into early adulthood and has clear benefits to offspring physical development. Therefore, prolonged juvenile dependence, although unique in its form in human societies, may be a trait with deeper evolutionary origins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic autoimmune disease of biliary stasis in which immune factors cause the gradual destruction of small bile ducts, biliary stasis, and eventually the development of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even liver failure. One of the main characteristics of PBC is that it primarily affects middle-aged women, but the precise cause is still unknown. This article analyzes the unique causes and mechanisms of the female predominance of PBC and summarizes the potential causes.The female domination of PBC is reported to be primarily caused by sex hormones, environmental circumstances, and epigenetic changes, each of which has a different subtle impact on patients' gender disparities., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Author(s).)

To clarify the signal transduction mechanism in the differentiation and secretion of salivary glandular cells, the present study was attempted to examine in the submandibular gland (SMG) of mice, the expression and localization of phospholipase D1 (PLD1), one of the important effector molecules working in response to the activation of intramembranous receptors by first messengers. In immunoblotting analysis, the expression of PLD1 was high at postnatal 4 weeks (P4W) and decreased at P8W, and it was at negligible levels at newborn stage (P0W) and postnatal 2 weeks (P2W). The expression of PLD1 was greater in females, and it was suppressed by administration of testosterone to female mice. In immuno‐light microscopy, immunoreactivity for PLD1 at P4W was moderate to intense, in the forms of dots and globules mainly in the apical domains of immature granular convoluted tubule (GCT)‐cells localized largely in the proximal portion of the female GCT. By P8W, it decreased in intensity and remained weak to moderate along the apical plasmalemma of cells throughout the course of the female GCT, whereas it was faint throughout the GCT of the male SMG at P4W and negligible at P8W. In immuno‐electron microscopy, immature GCT‐cells characterized by electron‐lucent granules were immunoreactive and the immunoreactive materials were deposited close to, but not within, those granules. Typical GCT cells, characterized by electron‐dense granules, were immunonegative. No significant immunoreaction for PLD1 was seen in acini of SMGs of either sex at any time point examined. It is suggested that PLD1 is involved in the signaling for secretion of immature GCT cells and influences differentiation of these cells, probably through their own secretory substances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Social tolerance strongly influences the patterns of affiliation and aggression in animal societies. However, not much is known about the variation of social tolerance in species living in dispersed social systems that combine solitary foraging activities with the need of coordinating social interactions with conspecifics on a regular basis. This study aims to investigate the sources of variation in social tolerance within a Malagasy primate radiation with dispersed social systems, the mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.). Six mouse lemur species were selected as model species that belong to three different taxonomic clades, live in two types of forest environments (dry and humid), and differed in this study with respect to their reproductive activity. Six male–female and six male–male dyads of each species were tested temporarily in a standardized social encounter paradigm in Madagascar to collect data on joint use of space, non-agonistic body contacts, aggression rates, the number of conflicts and the establishment of intra- and intersexual dominance. Results: Male–female dyads of the six species differed significantly in the frequency of affiliative and agonistic behaviors. In contrast, the variations between male–male dyads could not be explained by one parameter only, but clade membership, forest type, reproductive state as well as species were all suggested to be partially influential. Only one species (Microcebus mamiratra) showed signals of unambiguous female dominance in all male–female dyads, whereas the others had no or only a few dyads with female dominance. Conclusions: Variations in social tolerance and its consequences are most likely influenced by two factors, ecology (via forest type) and physiology (via reproductive activity), and only to a lesser extent by clade membership. The study suggests that mouse lemur females have higher aggression rates and more agonistic conflicts with males when females in the population are reproducing, at least in resource-rich humid forests. The study confirms a high degree of social plasticity between species in these small solitary foragers that supports their taxonomic distinctiveness and requires further scientific attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well established that social rank in a large group confers a higher adaptive value to a dominant individual relative to others, although there is scant evidence that members of small social groups either have similar social standing or maintain strict dominance. We aimed to determine whether members of small social groups, using the southern bamboo lemur, Hapalemur meridionalis , as a model, gain rank-related benefits. We first established a dominance hierarchy through a network-based analysis of win–loss interactions, which showed that adult females maintained social dominance within their groups, similar to many strepsirrhine species. To address whether dominant individuals gained rank-related benefits, we then explored how social dynamics may permit access to resting huddles, which provide a physiological benefit. Social thermoregulation, i.e. huddling, is a behavioural energy conservation mechanism, and among many mammals is a direct response to decreasing ambient temperatures. As such, huddling behaviour may have evolved among social animals because of its potential direct and indirect benefits. To examine the effect of dominance rank within small social groups on huddling inclusion, we used generalized linear mixed-effects models to predict the likelihood of huddling occurring during resting bouts from climatic (e.g. temperature, precipitation), social (e.g. affiliation, dominance rank, grooming) and reproductive (e.g. access, infant protection) variables. We found that lower temperatures, especially during shorter resting bouts, increased the likelihood of huddling. Grooming between partners with a high discrepancy in rank increased huddling. Additionally, huddling increased during the reproductive season, potentially offering greater opportunity for males to gain favour with sexually receptive females, and when new-borns were present, providing essential thermal maintenance and potential antipredator protection to infants. Together, our results suggest that even in small social groups, females gain rank-related benefits by controlling access to huddles, i.e. the intrinsic benefits of social thermoregulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]