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A growing body of research focuses on optimizing retrieval processes to help learners recall information from memory. The context-dependent memory effect suggests that information retrieval is more effective when the retrieval context matches the learning context. This phenomenon has been investigated in a variety of study materials and samples. However, there is a research gap in which this effect has not yet been investigated with font. Therefore, the font may act as a contextual retrieval cue, making it easier for learners to recall the presented information. In this context, the present experiment assumes that a match between the font used during learning (encoding phase) and that used during testing (decoding phase) improves retrieval processes and thus learning performance, while a mismatch has a negative effect. To test this assumption, 130 university students were randomly assigned to one condition of a two (font of learning texts: Haettenschweiler vs. Times New Roman) × two (font of learning questions: Haettenschweiler vs. Times New Roman) between-subjects design. Contrary to expectations, using the same font for encoding and decoding did not improve learning performance. Furthermore, learners did not report higher levels of mental effort when they had to work on learning questions presented in the same font as the learning texts. Although the font of the learning text is the most salient feature, it does not seem to serve as an effective retrieval cue in text-based learning.

Abstract Whiteboard animations have become very popular in recent years. They are mainly used in distance education, where learners can acquire knowledge individually and without the help of a teacher. However, there is little empirical evidence on how whiteboard animations should be designed to achieve learning-enhancing effects. Since the presentation of whiteboard animations is reminiscent of a teacher drawing or showing content on a whiteboard, the hand has been identified as an essential feature of this learning medium. Therefore, the aim of this experimental study was to investigate whether and how the human hand should be implemented in whiteboard animations for the presentation of visual content. University students (N = 84) watched a whiteboard animation in which the type of information insertion was manipulated (hand drawing content vs. hand pushing content in vs. no hand visible). Results revealed that the drawing hand on a whiteboard led to significantly higher intrinsic motivation than the hand pushing visual content onto the whiteboard. Contrary to assumptions derived from cognitive load theory, the implementation of a human hand did not cause extraneous cognitive load. However, no other effects on the perception of the instructor, cognitive load, and learning performance were found. The results are discussed in terms of both cognitive and social processes in multimedia learning.

Although whiteboard animations are increasingly used for educational purposes, there is little empirical evidence as to why such animations can enhance learning. To specify essential elements, their dynamic visual presentation, as well as their narrative embedding, were found to be theortically important. In a first Experiment (N = 133) with a 2 (presentation mode: static pictures vs. progressive drawing) x 2 (narrative context: with vs. without a narrative) between-subject factorial design, motivational, cognitive, affective variables, as well as learning outcomes, of secondary school students were measured. Results revealed that progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context, are mostly associated with an increase in learning-relevant variables. In a second experiment with the same sample and the same experimental design but a different whiteboard animation, results from Experiment 1 generalize to another learning content. Again, a progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context within whiteboard animation, fostered learning relevant variables as well as learning outcomes. Results are discussed considering the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the contiguity effect as well as the instructional design theory of anchored instruction.

Several studies highlight the importance of the order of different instructional methods when designing learning environments. Correct but also erroneous worked examples are frequently used methods to foster students’ learning performance, especially in problem-solving. However, so far no study examined how the order of these example types affects learning. While the expertise reversal effect would suggest presenting correct examples first, the productive failure approach hypothesizes the reversed order to be learning-facilitating. In addition, congruency of subsequent exemplified problems was tested as a moderator of the effect of order on learning. For example, with arithmetic tasks, congruent problems target exactly the same calculation while incongruent problems refer to different calculations. Following cascade theory, a model of cognitive skill acquisition, presenting correct examples first should be more effective when the subsequent exemplified problems are different. To test the (conflicting) hypotheses, 83 university students were assigned to one of the four conditions in a 2 (correct vs. erroneous example first) × 2 (same vs. different exemplified problems) between-subject design. Learners navigated through a slideshow on the topic of Vedic mathematics consisting of explicit instruction, worked examples differing in terms of the experimental condition, and transfer problems. Although no main or interaction effects were found regarding students’ learning performance, mediational analysis offered support for the expertise reversal effect, as it indicated that there is a significant indirect effect of order via mental load on learning. Presenting correct examples first and erroneous examples second resulted in a lower mental load, which in turn was associated with better learning performance. In contrast, presenting erroneous examples first and correct examples second resulted in a more accurate self-assessment of learning performance. These findings offer first insights into the question of how the presentation order of different example types impacts learning and provide practical recommendations for the design of educational media. Results are discussed in light of the ongoing debate regarding the question if less guided instructional methods should precede or succeed more guided methods.

The disfluency effect postulates that intentionally inserted desirable difficulties can have a beneficial effect on learning. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing discussion about the emergence of this effect since studies could not replicate this effect or even found opposite effects. To clarify boundary effects of the disfluency effect and to investigate potential social effects of disfluency operationalized through handwritten material, three studies (N1 = 97; N2 = 102; N3 = 103) were carried out. In all three experiments, instructional texts were manipulated in terms of disfluency (computerized font vs. handwritten font). Learning outcomes and cognitive load were measured in all experiments. Furthermore, metacognitive variables (Experiment 2 and 3) and social presence (Experiment 3) were measured. Results were ambiguous, indicating that element interactivity (complexity or connectedness of information within the learning material) of the learning material is a boundary condition that determines the effects of disfluency. When element interactivity is low, disfluency had a positive effect on learning outcomes and germane processes. When element interactivity increases, disfluency had negative impacts on learning efficiency (Experiment 2 and 3) and extraneous load (Experiment 3). In contrast to common explanations of the disfluency effect, a disfluent font had no metacognitive benefits. Social processes did not influence learning with disfluent material as well.

Concepts maps can be an effective way to present conceptual relationships to learners. However, teachers using concept maps suffer from a lack of evidence-based design principles. Highlighting the organization of the information and making its structure more salient might be more helpful for learners, especially as concept maps increase in size and complexity. In two experiments (N1 = 104; N2 = 155), the effect of organization highlighting in concept maps on learning was investigated applying the signaling and the spatial contiguity principle (Experiment 1) or the signaling and the segmenting principle (Experiment 2). Results revealed that providing segmented concept maps with high spatial proximity of sub-concepts enhanced learning outcomes. Additionally, signaling was beneficial for learning in both experiments but more efficient when concept maps were non-segmented or with a low spatial proximity of sub-concepts – supporting the assumption that signaling is an effective way to reduce extraneous cognitive load and foster learning from materials that induce a high extraneous cognitive load. Explanations are provided considering differences in metacognitive judgments, time on task, and mental effort (Experiment 1 and 2) as well as learners’ efficiency (Experiment 2).