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Pyrethroids are among the most widely used insecticides. Fenvalerate (FEN), a synthetic pyrethroid, is frequently used in domestic and agricultural settings to control insects which ultimately find its way into the aquatic ecosystems. The larval stages of amphibians, which are experiencing a rapid population decline, are spent in aquatic habitats, thus making them vulnerable to FEN exposure. The potential toxic effects of pyrethoids in general and FEN in particular are not well understood. The present study was carried out to assess the toxicity of FEN in tadpoles of Fejervarya limnocharis. FEN at different concentrations (0, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 mg/L) induced substantial lethal effects. The estimated LC50 values were 8.54, 6.73, 5.44, and 4.44 mg/L at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h respectively. Exposure to environmentally relevant sub-lethal concentrations delayed metamorphosis and reduced survivality. FEN was found to be genotoxic in erythrocyte micronucleus and comet assay. Further, sub-lethal concentrations of FEN adversely affected the antioxidant defense mechanism of the exposed individuals with parallel increase oxidative damage to membrane lipids. The swimming behavior in the form of startle response, swirl response, and total movements was decreased with a concomitant decrease in AChE activity. In addition, FEN exhibited significant cardiotoxicity by decreasing the cardiac rate of the exposed individuals. The present findings clearly indicate that FEN can cause significant toxicity to the tadpoles of F. limnocharis affecting their survival and fitness in the natural environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anuran skin preserves all functional activities, especially for respiration and water regulation. Duttaphrynus melanostictus and Fejervarya limnocharis are the common species found in Borneo lowlands and are well-adapted to humans. Hence, they can reproduce quickly and rapidly in great numbers in the urban area. This study aims to select these urban-type anurans and describe the skin structure and glands. Four regions of skin samples were obtained, namely Dorsal Head (DH), Dorsal Centre (DC), Ventral Head (VH) and Ventral Centre (VC). The microscopic slides were prepared accordingly as in the histological techniques including skin grossing, fixing, processing, embedding, sectioning and were stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin staining. The seromucous glands are most prevalent in all four regions for both species. Parotoid glands are clearly visible in the skin structure of D. melanostictus, while there is a lack of parotoid glands in F. limnocharis. Nonetheless, F. limnocharis contains regular rows of glands, whereas the distribution of glands in D. melanostictus is scattered. In addition, D. melanostictus possess dermal bones, which are absent in F. limnocharis. Since anuran skin is a mucosal surface that in constant direct contact with the environment, their adaptations to harsh habitats should be reflected in the skin, particularly in the urban and invasive species in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tributyltin (TBT) is widely used in various commercial applications due to its biocidal properties. Toxicological and genotoxicological data on TBT exposure to amphibians is insufficient. Our study aimed to determine the acute toxicity and genotoxic potential of TBT in Fejervarya limnocharis tadpoles. Furthermore, oxidative stress was also investigated in TBT-treated tadpoles. Tadpoles of Gosner stage (26–30) were screened and subjected to increasing concentrations of TBT (0, 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23 µg/L) for determining the LC50 values for 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h. LC50 values of TBT for 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h were found to be 19.45, 15.07, 13.12, and 11.84 μg/L respectively. Based on the 96 h LC50 value (11.84 µg/L), tadpoles were exposed to different sub-lethal concentrations of TBT for the evaluation of its genotoxic potential and effects on oxidative balance. The role of TBT on survivability, growth, and time to metamorphosis was also assessed. TBT exposure significantly altered the life history traits measured, increased mortality, and delayed the time taken to metamorphosis. Results indicated significant induction of micronucleus (MN, p < 0.001) and other erythrocytic nuclear aberrations (ENA, p < 0.01) in the TBT-treated groups. Significant alterations in comet parameters and oxidative balance were also observed in the treated groups. The present study findings might add to the cause of the gradual population decline seen in the amphibians. This study also demonstrates the alteration of the life-history traits, oxidative balance, and DNA damage upon TBT exposure which can have long-term consequences for the anuran amphibian F. limnocharis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organophosphate pesticides, especially chlorpyrifos, are one of the most widely used insecticides in agriculture, but their toxicity and potential sensitivity effects on Anura, especially Fejervarya limnocharisare still unknown. The purpose of this investigation is to studyF. limnocharis(Anura: Dicroglossidae) tadpole sen-sitivity to lethal (survivability) and sublethal effects (morphological alterations and swimming activity) of chlorpyrifos in Dursban 200EC commercial formula under acute exposure.An acute toxicity test was carried out on ten tadpoles (Gosner 25) in each repetition. The sample was obtained from artificial reproduction by injecting the Trial Batch 2000 IU hCG by Kings Lab. The acute toxicity testing consisted of three replicates with a chlorpyrifos concentration of 0; 0.4; 0.8; 1; 2; 4;and 8 μg/L. Physico-chemical parameters, mortality, morphological, and swimmingalterationsof each concentration were observed at 24th, 48th, 72nd, and 96th hours. The LC50of chlorpyrifos for F. limnocharis tadpoles was 2.86 μg/L. The percentage of survivability F. limnocharistadpoles decreased after exposure to chlorpyrifos above 1μg/L, while morphological alterations were observed in 2 μg/L and 4 μg/L after 48thhours exposure, and the swimming alterations have occurred at 24thhours in 1; 2; 4 and 8 μg/L. Morphological alterations were ob-served including asymmetrical body shape, edema, and abnormal tail shape. Based on the LC50 value, commercial chlorpyrifos has high-level toxicity on F. limnocharis tadpoles.

Organophosphate pesticides, especially chlorpyrifos, are one of the most widely used insecticides in agriculture, but their toxicity and potential sensitivity effects on Anura, especially Fejervarya limnocharis are still unknown. The purpose of this investigation is to study F. limnocharis (Anura: Dicroglossidae) tadpole sensitivity to lethal (survivability) and sublethal effects (morphological alterations and swimming activity) of chlorpyrifos in Dursban 200EC commercial formula under acute exposure. An acute toxicity test was carried out on ten tadpoles (Gosner 25) in each repetition. The sample was obtained from artificial reproduction by injecting the Trial Batch 2000 IU hCG by Kings Lab. The acute toxicity testing consisted of three replicates with a chlorpyrifos concentration of 0; 0.4; 0.8; 1; 2; 4; and 8 µg/L. Physico-chemical parameters, mortality, morphological, and swimming alterations of each concentration were observed at 24th, 48th, 72nd, and 96th hours. The LC50 of chlorpyrifos for F. limnocharis tadpoles was 2.86 µg/L. The percentage of survivability F. limnocharis tadpoles decreased after exposure to chlorpyrifos above 1µg/L, while morphological alterations were observed in 2 µg/L and 4 µg/L after 48th hours exposure, and the swimming alterations have occurred at 24th hours in 1; 2; 4 and 8 µg/L. Morphological alterations were observed including asymmetrical body shape, edema, and abnormal tail shape. Based on the LC50 value, commercial chlorpyrifos has high-level toxicity on F. limnocharis tadpoles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquatic environments are often contaminated with zinc. Amphibian tadpoles are likely to be exposed to high concentrations of zinc present in these environments. We determined the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of ZnCl2 on Fejervarya limnocharis tadpoles under laboratory conditions. The LC50 values of ZnCl2 were found to be 5.81, 4.32, 3.79 and 3.61 mg/L at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure respectively. Long-term exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of ZnCl2 induced significant mortality in concentration and time dependent manner. Sub-lethal ZnCl2 exposure significantly altered survival, body length and body weight at metamorphosis. Micronucleus test and comet assay indicated the genotoxic potential of ZnCl2. Significant increase in DNA strand break was observed following ZnCl2 exposure equivalent to 1% of the of 24 h LC50 value. The findings indicate possible adverse to tadpoles inhabiting aquatic environments contaminated with zinc. In addition, the findings may be extrapolated to aquatic organisms of similar torphic status.

Aquatic environments are often contaminated with zinc. Amphibian tadpoles are likely to be exposed to high concentrations of zinc present in these environments. We determined the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of ZnCl2 on Fejervarya limnocharis tadpoles under laboratory conditions. The LC50 values of ZnCl2 were found to be 5.81, 4.32, 3.79 and 3.61 mg/L at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure respectively. Long-term exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of ZnCl2 induced significant mortality in concentration and time dependent manner. Sub-lethal ZnCl2 exposure significantly altered survival, body length and body weight at metamorphosis. Micronucleus test and comet assay indicated the genotoxic potential of ZnCl2. Significant increase in DNA strand break was observed following ZnCl2 exposure equivalent to 1% of the of 24 h LC50 value. The findings indicate possible adverse to tadpoles inhabiting aquatic environments contaminated with zinc. In addition, the findings may be extrapolated to aquatic organisms of similar torphic status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the bioaccumulation and elimination of lead (Pb) in Fejervarya limnocharis frogs as well as to determine the genotoxic effects of direct Pb exposure at different concentrations and lengths of time. Four varying concentrations (0, 5, 10 and 20 mg.L-1) of lead acetate (Pb(CH3COO)2) solutions were injected intraperitoneally into F. limnocharis. The concentration of Pb in the water samples used to house the frogs and the concentration of lead in frog muscle tissues were analysed at 24, 48 and 72 hours after injection by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Pb was detected at a level that exceeded the standard (0.03 mg.kg-1) in all samples of frogs injected with Pb. The water samples indicated that the Pb concentrations were significantly different from the control (p < 0.05), except for the 5 and 10 mg.L-1 concentrations after 24 hours groups and 5 mg.L-1 concentration after 48 hours group. Only the concentration of the water in the 20 mg.L-1 for 72 hours group exceeded the standard (0.05 mg.L-1). Genetic differentiation was studied by inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) with dendrogram construction and analysis of genetic similarity (S) for each duration of exposure. A total of 1158, 1205 and 1277 bands were generated by ISSR for the 24, 48 and 72 hours groups, respectively. In each dendrogram, individual injections with the same Pb concentration clustered together, and it appeared that higher concentrations resulted in greater genotoxicity. Genotoxicity was concentration- and time-dependent, with a correlation between the concentration and S-value for the 72 hours group (R2 = 0.77, p < 0.05). In addition, this study could provide a basic application to develop F. limnocharis as a biomarker for Pb contamination by measuring genotoxic consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organisms adapt to environmental fluctuations by varying their morphology and structural, physiological, and biochemical characteristics. Gut microbiome, varying rapidly in response to environmental shifts, has been proposed as a strategy for adapting to the fluctuating environment (e.g., new dietary niches). Here, we explored the adaptive mechanism of frog intestinal microbes in response to environmental changes. We collected 170 Fejervarya limnocharis during different seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and pre-hibernation) to study the compositional and functional divergence of gut microbiota and analysed the effects of seasonal feeding habits and body condition on intestinal microorganisms using 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing, Tax4Fun function prediction analysis, and bioinformatics analysis. The results showed no significant dietary difference in various seasons and between males and females. However, a significantly positive correlation was detected between dietary diversity and food niche width. Host condition (body size, body mass, and body condition) also revealed seasonal changes. The frogs were colonised by 71 bacterial phyla and dominated by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes. Stenotrophomonas was the most abundant genus in the Proteobacteria. The composition, diversity, and function of intestinal microorganisms in different seasons were significantly different. Significant differences were observed in composition and function but not in the microbial diversity between sexes. Furthermore, seasonal foods and body mass were significantly correlated with gut microbial composition. Our results suggest that gut microbiomes of F. limnocharis vary seasonally in response to diet under fluctuating environments.

Histological observation has always been important in the study of sentinels. In this research, histological differences in the liver and kidney of two wild populations of Fejervarya limnocharis exposed to different environmental cadmium levels were observed. Liver and kidney samples from 30 rice frogs caught from reference site (Mae Pa) and contaminated site (Mae Tao) were sectioned and stained with Haemotoxylin and Eosin and then observed under light microscope. It was found that liver sections from frogs caught from Mae Tao had higher hepatic macro-melanophage count (MMC) (0.949 ± 0.267 cells/1000 μm2) as compared to those from Mae Pa (0.672 ± 0.299 cells/1000 μm2). Other observable histological features found in frog's liver from Mae Tao include possible necrotic areas, cellular swellings and chromatin margination. The kidney sections from frogs caught from Mae Tao showed the presence of tumor-like cell aggregation and hemorrhage. However, the proportion of tumor-like cell aggregation and hemorrhage were not significantly different than were expected from random occurrences. The result of the histological study revealed that F. limnocharis caught from Mae Tao had higher hepatic MMC and higher prevalence of renal tumor-like aggregation and renal hemorrhage than the rice frogs caught from Mae Pa. Cellular swelling, possible necrotic area and possible apoptotic cell could also be observed in the liver of contaminated frogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this study were to investigate abnormal chromosomes in rice field frogs (Fejervarya limnocharis) in reservoirs affected by leachate compared with a non-affected area. Nine individual of F. limnocharis were collected, and abnormal chromosomes were studied using bone marrow. The level of heavy metal concentrations (cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb)) were measured in water, sediment and F. limnocharis samples. The average concentrations of Cd, Cr and Pb in the water and sediment samples from the municipal landfill and non-affected areas were 0.002±0.000, 0.545±0.876 and 0.021±0.009 and not detected, 0.046±0.032 and 0.009±0.002 mg/l in water as well as 0.472±0.060, 18.652±6.791 and 5.369±0.645 and 0.234±0.019, 4.769±0.142 and 2.176±0.783 mg/kg in sediment, respectively. The municipal landfill values were lower than the permissible limit of the water and soil quality standards, while Cr exceeded the water standard. The average Cd, Cr and Pb concentrations in the F. limnocharis samples from the municipal landfill and non-affected areas were 0.023±0.007, 1.857±0.498 and 0.393±0.128 and 0.007±0.000, 1.349±0.083 and 0.183±0.005 mg/kg, respectively, with the Cd and Cr levels both lower than the standards, but not the Pb levels. The diploid chromosome number of F. limnocharis in both areas was 2n=26, and the percentage of chromosome abnormalities of F. limnocharis in the municipal landfill area were higher than the non-affected area. There were eleven types of chromosome abnormalities, including a single chromatid gap, isochromatid gap, single chromatid break, isochromatid break, centric fragmentation, deletion, fragmentation, translocation, centromere gap, iso-arm fragmentation and single chromatid decompose. The most common chromosome abnormality in the samples from the municipal landfill area was fragmentation. The difference in the percentage of chromosome abnormality in F. limnocharis from both areas was statistically significant (p

Paddy field was a dynamic and biodiversity rich ecosystems. Insect diversity in paddy field ecosystem was infected by paddy plant growth stages. Grass frog (Fejervarya limnocharis) ate insects as their natural prey. Insect population dynamics during vegetative, generative and reproductive stage of paddy plants infected F. limnocharis natural prey. This research aims were to study insect diversity and F. limnocharis insect prey diversity of vegetative, reproductive and generative paddy plant growth stages at Panggungharjo village, Sewon, Bantul. Insect sampling was conducted by direct survey method while F. limnocharis collection conducted by Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method. Ninety eight insect species from 51 different families and nine orders of insect were found. The orders were Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Dermaptera, Hemiptera and Lepidoptera. Stomachs analysis indicated F. limnocharis ate nine insect orders. The orders were Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Dermaptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Isoptera. Most commonly insect prey in vegetative, reproductive and generative phase paddy growth stage were the members of the Order Coleoptera, Family Acrididae (Orthoptera) and Family Formicidae (Hymenoptera) respectively. This study concluded F. limnocharis main natural prey was the easily found and easily perceived insects.

Asian grass frog Fejervarya limnocharis is being utilized as pets, for laboratory experiments, for a mixture of traditional medicine and for cuisine. The harvest of F. limnocharis in high volume can threat its population. Biological data such as the age when the specimens are harvested is valuable information to manage the harvesting system in sustainable way. We conducted the skeletochronology technique using paraffin methods and hematoxylin staining from 69 samples (46 males, 21 females, 2 juveniles). The results showed that the age harvested male ranged from 1 to 3 years old, while the female ranged from 2 to 3 years old. The snout-vent length (SVL) of harvested specimens ranges between 39.84-52.37 mm for both sexes. We propose an intervention in the harvesting system by limitation of the size for harvested specimens to at least 46 mm. In this minimum size, individuals of F. limnocharis have reproduced several times and have contributed to the population in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chromosome aberrations (CA) in frogs (Fejervarya limnocharis) exposed to 5, 10 and 20 mg/L of cadmium chloride (CdCl2) for 24, 48 and 72 h were invetegated. Treated frogs were compared to a control group. Cadmium (Cd) was not detected in the water or control frogs. The highest Cd concentrations in water and frog samples were found at 20 mg/L exposed for 72 h. The water samples indicated that exposure to 10 mg/L of Cd for 24 h was significantly different from the control (p < 0.05). Cd concentrations in frogs differed significantly between the control and experimental groups (p < 0.05). The cytotoxicity assessment revealed ten types of CA in the frogs, including single chromatid gap (SCG), isochromatid gap, single chromatid break, isochromatid break, iso-arm fragmentation, single chromatid decomposition, centric fragmentation, centromere gap, deletion and fragmentation. The most common CA in the study was SCG. The statistical analysis indicated significant differences in the percentage of cells with CA for exposures of 20 mg/L (24 h), 10 and 20 mg/L (48 h) and 5, 10 and 20 mg/L (72 h) compared to the control (p < 0.05). The results of this study show that high Cd concentrations and long duration exposure can cause CA in frogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because the brain is one of the energetically most expensive organs of animals, trade-offs have been hypothesized to exert constraints on brain size evolution. The expensive-tissue hypothesis predicts that the cost of a large brain should be compensated by decreasing size of other metabolically costly tissues, such as the gut. Here, we analyzed the relationships between relative brain size and the size of other metabolically costly tissues (i.e., gut, heart, lung, kidney, liver, spleen or limb muscles) among four Fejervarya limnocharis populations to test the predictions of the expensive-tissue hypothesis. We did not find that relative brain size was negatively correlated with relative gut length after controlling for body size, which was inconsistent with the prediction of the expensive-tissue hypothesis. We also did not find negative correlations between relative brain mass and relative size of the other energetically expensive organs. Our findings suggest that the cost of large brains in F. limnocharis cannot be compensated by decreasing size in other metabolically costly tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bergmann’s rule states that within a species of endotherms smaller individuals are found in warmer conditions, which is consistent for nearly all endotherms, while in ectotherms body size patterns are less consistent. As ectothermic vertebrates, the morphology of amphibians is likely impacted by climatic conditions. Here, we examined latitudinal variation in body size in the ranid frog, Fejervarya limnocharis, based on literature and our own data on mean body size of 3637 individuals from 50 populations and average age of 2873 individuals from 40 populations in China. The results showed that body size was positively correlated with environmental temperature, but not with precipitation. Body size was negatively correlated with latitude among populations in this species, which supported the inverse of Bergmann’s rule. Our findings suggest that a larger body size in low-latitude populations is associated with a longer growing season related to the higher environmental temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viral disease-causing pathogens transmitted by mosquito vectors are a global health problem, causing economic burden in many underdeveloped countries. Searching for pesticides from plant sources that are readily available in areas with mosquito-borne diseases to control mosquitoes may be an economical and timely solution to prevent and respond to pandemic outbreaks. Magnolia essential oils have shown a myriad of biological activities and we hypothesize that Magnolia foveolata essential oil may show pesticidal activities. The purpose of this investigation, therefore, was to characterize the essential oil of M. foveolata and to screen the essential oil for mosquito larvicidal and molluscicidal activities. Essential oil from the leaves of M. foveolata was obtained by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger type apparatus for 5 h. Chemical composition was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID), chiral gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. Pesticide activities of the essential oil were tested following WHO guidelines with modifications. The leaf essential oil of M. foveolata was dominated by the monoterpene hydrocarbons (+)-α-thujene (22.5%), (+)-α-pinene (6.9%) and (−)-α-pinene (9.0%), and p -cymene (9.5%), as well as the oxygenated monoterpenoid (−)-terpinen-4-ol (9.7%). The M. foveolata leaf essential oil was very active against the larvae of four mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Culex quinquefasciatus, Culex fuscocephala with 24-h LC 50 less than 40 μg/mL. The leaf essential oil of M. foveolata was also active against the fresh water snails, Pomacea canaliculata and Gyraulus convexiusculus , with LC 90 values of 10.5 μg/mL and 23.6 μg/mL, respectively. Unfortunately, this essential oil also showed strong toxicity against non-target organisms Diplonychus rusticus , Anisops sp., Oreochromis sp., and Fejervarya limnocharis tadpoles. With appropriate care, the essential oil of M. foveolata may be considered as a pesticide applied to control mosquito species such as Ae. aegypti or Cx. quinquefasciatus living in urban areas. [Display omitted] • Essential oil was analyzed by GC-MS, GC-FID, chiral GC-MS. • The essential oil was dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons. • Strong larvicidal activity against Aedes, Culex mosquitoes (24-h LC 50 < 40 μg/mL). • The essential oil is strongly toxic to aquatic non-target organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In animals, the amount of nutrients acquired through foraging and the proportion of metabolisable energy gained is reflected in the digestive tract length. This digestion theory predicts that the consumption of food with high content of indigestible material will lead to increased gut dimensions. Here, we analyzed geographic variation in digestive tract length related to diet among 14 Fejervarya limnocharis populations to test the digestion theory. Relative digestive tract length significantly differed between males and females and among populations. The relative length of the digestive tract increased with altitude. We also found a positive correlation between the proportion of plant material and digestive tract length for both sexes, which is consistent with the prediction of the digestion theory. Our findings suggest that variation in temperature associated with altitude affects food composition, and, thereby ultimately gut morphology of individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variable environmental conditions affect brain size evolution. To explain inter- and intraspecific brain size variation among vertebrates, two adaptive hypotheses - the expensive brain hypothesis ( EBH) and the cognitive buffer hypothesis ( CBH) - have been proposed. The EBF proposes that relative brain size is reduced in animals that experience longer periods of low food availability in fluctuating environments. Alternatively, the CBH states that a major advantage of a relatively large brain is to enhance cognitive abilities in fluctuating environments. We found considerable variation in brain size and the sizes of brain structures in the Asian grass frog ( Fejervarya limnocharis) among populations. Inconsistent with the predictions of the EBH and the CBH, individuals living in habitats with medium variation in temperatures and length of growth seasons at middle latitude and/or altitude had a relatively large brain, suggesting that environmental habitat-induced energetic constraints do not play an important role in shaping brain size evolution. Moreover, we also detected a significant intersexual difference in telencephalon size. Specifically, none of relative size of brain structures was correlated with variation in temperature and growth season related to environmental habitats, although latitude strongly affected the relative sizes of telencephalon and cerebellum. Our findings decline both the EBH and the CBH to explain brain size variation in the Asian grass frog. Furthermore, our results also suggest the sex-specificity of the environmental-induced brain size evolution in adult frogs associated with reproductive behaviors and spawning site selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The objectives of this study were to investigate chromosomal aberrations in rice field frogs ( Fejervarya limnocharis) from gold mine area compared to those from non-affected area. Three frogs were collected from each site, and chromosomal aberrations were studied in their bone marrow. Arsenic (As) was also measured in water and sediment from both areas. The average As concentrations in samples from the gold mine and the non-affected areas were 0.03 ± 0.003 mg/L and not detected in water and 351.59 ± 5.73 and 1.37 ± 1.07 mg/kg in sediment, respectively. The values in the gold mine were still higher than that allowed by the water and soil quality standards; however, the As concentrations in the samples from the non-affected area were acceptable. The average concentrations of As in the frog samples from the gold mine and the non-affected areas were 0.35 ± 0.33 and 0.07 ± 0.01 mg/kg, respectively, which were both lower than the standard of As contamination in food. The diploid chromosome number of frogs in both areas was 2 n = 26, and the percentage of chromosomal aberrations in rice field frogs in the gold mine area was higher than in the non-affected area. There were seven types of chromosomal aberrations observed: single chromatid gap, isochromatid gap, single chromatid breaks, deletion, fragmentation, centric fragmentation and polyploidy. The most common chromosomal aberration in the samples from the affected area was the single chromatid gap. The difference in the percentages of chromosomal aberrations in rice field frogs from each area was statistically significant ( p < 0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Agricultural activities inevitably result in anthropogenic interference with natural habitats. The diet and the gut microbiota of farmland wildlife can be altered due to the changes in food webs within agricultural ecosystems. In this work, we compared the diet and intestinal microbiota of the frog Fejervarya limnocharis in natural and farmland habitats in order to understand how custom farming affects the health of in vivo microbial ecosystems. Results: The occurrence, abundance, and the numbers of prey categories of stomach content were significantly different between the frogs inhabiting natural and farmland habitats. In addition, differences in the abundance, species richness, and alpha-diversity of intestinal microbial communities were also statistically significant. The microbial composition, and particularly the composition of dominant microbes living in intestines, indicated that the land use practices might be one of factors affecting the gut microbial community composition. Although the first three dominant microbial phyla Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria found in the intestines of frogs were classified as generalists among habitats, the most dominant gut bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes in natural environments was replaced by the microbial phylum Firmicutes in farmland frogs. Increased intestinal microbial richness of the farmland frogs, which is mostly contributed by numerous microbial species of Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Planctomycetes, not only reflects the possible shifts in microbial community composition through the alteration of external ecosystem, but also indicates the higher risk of invasion by disease-related microbes. Conclusions: This study indicates that anthropogenic activities, such as the custom farming, have not only affected the food resources of frogs, but also influenced the health and in vivo microbial ecosystem of wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cepedea longa Bezzenberger, 1904, collected from Fejervarya limnocharis (Amphibia, Anura, Ranidae) from Honghu Lake, Hubei Province, China in May–July 2016, is described at both light and transmission electron microscope levels. This is the first electron microscopic study of this species. Cepedea longa possesses a developed fibrillar skeletal system, composed of longitudinal fibrillar bands and transversal fibrils as well as numerous thin microfibrils dispersed in the endoplasm, which may play an important role in morphogenesis and offer some resilience to deformations of the cell. Longitudinal microfibrils are polarizing elements of kineties, bordering the somatic kineties on the left side and possibly responsible for kinetosome alignment. Two types of vesicles exist in the somatic cortex: globular endocytotic vesicles and flattened exocytotic vesicles. As to the nuclei of C. longa, a thick microfibrillar layer was observed to attach to the cytoplasmic face of the nuclear envelope. This fact suggests no necessary connection between the presence of this microfibrillar layer and the number of nuclei. In addition, some unknown tightly-packed microtubular structures in the nucleoplasm were observed for the first time in opalinids; neither their nature nor physiological significance is known. A detailed list of all reported Cepedea species is included.

Pesticides residues were quantified in 109 frogs comprising two species ( Fejervarya limnocharis and Hoplobatrachus crassus) from organic and conventional paddy farms in Kerala, India. Seven frogs from conventional but none from the organic farms revealed deformities. Levels of total Organochlorines (OCs) (33.22 ng/g) and Synthetic Pyrethroid, Fenvalerate-II (26.91/42.15 ng/g) in deformed F. limnocharis and H. crassus were significantly greater than in healthy frogs. Among OCs in healthy frogs, traces of γ (gamma)-HCH (hexachlorocyclohexane) (2.12 ng/g) were found only in F. limnocharis from organic farm. Among Organophosphates, Phorate (1.02 ng/g) and Quinalphos (2.62 ng/g) were present in traces in deformed F. limnocharis, while Parathion ethyl (1.02 ng/g) was detected in deformed H. crassus. The data indicate that the high level of pesticides may have contributed to the deformity of frogs. Therefore, an elaborative study will be essential to conserve amphibians in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data sets from ecological experiments can be difficult to analyze, due to lack of independence of experimental units and complex variance structures. In addition, information of interest may lie in complicated contrasts among treatments, rather than direct output from statistical tests. Here, we present a statistical framework for analyzing data sets containing non-independent experimental units and differences in variance among treatments (hetero-scedasticity) and apply this framework to experimental data on interspecific competition among three tadpole species. Our framework involves three steps: (1) use a multilevel regression model to calculate coefficients of treatment effects on response variables; (2) combine coefficients to quantify the strength of competition (the target information of our experiment); and (3) use parametric bootstrapping to calculate significance of competition strengths. We repeated this framework using three multilevel regression models to analyze data at the level of individual tadpoles, at the replicate level, and at the replicate level accounting for heteroscedasticity. Comparing results shows the need to correctly specify the statistical model, with the model that accurately accounts for heteroscedasticity leading to different conclusions from the other two models. This approach gives a single, comprehensive analysis of experimental data that can be used to extract informative biological parameters in a statistically rigorous way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glutathione-S-Transferase (GST) and metallothionein are important biomarker endpoints in studying the effect of Cd exposure. The purpose of this research was to study the correlation between hepatic GST and metallothionein with hepatic Cd in wild Fejervarya limnocharis exposed to environmental Cd. Results showed that frogs from contaminated sites had significantly higher hepatic metallothionein (3.58 mg/kg wet weight) and GST activity (0.259 μmol/min/mg total protein) than those from the reference site (2.36 mg/kg wet weight and 0.157 μmol/min/mg total protein respectively). There was a significantly positive correlation between hepatic Cd and GST activity (r = 0.802, p = 0.009) but not between hepatic Cd and metallothionein (r = 0.548, p = 0.139). The results concluded that while frogs from the contaminated site had higher GST and metallothionein, only GST showed significant positive correlation with hepatic Cd levels, indicating that hepatic GST activity may be used as a biomarker endpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harsh environments experienced early in development have immediate effects and potentially long-lasting consequences throughout ontogeny. We examined how salinity fluctuations affected survival, growth and development of Fejervarya limnocharis tadpoles. Specifically, we tested whether initial salinity effects on growth and rates of development were reversible and whether they affected the tadpoles' ability to adaptively accelerate development in response to deteriorating conditions later in development. Tadpoles were initially assigned to either low or high salinity, and then some were switched between salinity levels upon reaching either Gosner stage 30 (early switch) or 38 (late switch). All tadpoles initially experiencing low salinity survived whereas those initially experiencing high salinity had poor survival, even if switched to low salinity. Growth and developmental rates of tadpoles initially assigned to high salinity did not increase after osmotic stress release. Initial low salinity conditions allowed tadpoles to attain a fast pace of development even if exposed to high salinity afterwards. Tadpoles experiencing high salinity only late in development metamorphosed faster and at a smaller size, indicating an adaptive acceleration of development to avoid osmotic stress. Nonetheless, early exposure to high salinity precluded adaptive acceleration of development, always causing delayed metamorphosis relative to those in initially low salinity. Our results thus show that stressful environments experienced early in development can critically impact life history traits, having long-lasting or irreversible effects, and restricting their ability to produce adaptive plastic responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Butachlor is the most commonly used herbicide on paddy fields in Taiwan and throughout Southeast Asia. Since paddy fields provide habitat for pond breeding amphibians, we examined growth, development, time to metamorphosis, and survival of alpine cricket frog tadpoles ( Fejervarya limnocharis) exposed to environmentally realistic concentrations of butachlor. We documented negative impacts of butachlor on survival, development, and time to metamorphosis, but not on tadpole growth. The 96 h LC for tadpoles was 0.87 mg/l, much lower than the 4.8 mg/l recommended dosage for application to paddy fields. Even given the rapid breakdown of butachlor, tadpoles would be exposed to concentrations in excess of their 96 h LC for an estimated 126 h. We also documented DNA damage (genotoxicity) in tadpoles exposed to butachlor at concentrations an order of magnitude less than the 4.8 mg/l recommended application rate. We did not find that butachlor depressed cholinesterase activity of tadpoles, unlike most organophosphorus insecticides. We conclude that butachlor is likely to have widespread negative impacts on amphibians occupying paddy fields with traditional herbicide application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contaminant accumulation analysis is important in the study of sentinels. This research determined cadmium accumulation and bioconcentration factors of whole organism, liver, kidney, ovary and testis of Fejervarya limnocharis exposed to different environmental cadmium levels. Frogs from contaminated sites had significantly higher hepatic (1.939 mg/kg), renal (7.253 mg/kg) and testicular (1.462 mg/kg) cadmium than those from the reference sites (0.205, 0.783 and 0.379 mg/kg, respectively). Cadmium accumulation was the highest during the late dry and early rainy seasons. If this species is used as a sentinel for cadmium accumulation, the utilization of its whole organism, liver, kidney and testis is appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the food habits of Anuran larvae tadpoles in Barak Valley, North-Eastern, India. Accordingly, tadpoles were herbivorous which consumed numerous taxa of algae, however, they were known to filter organic matter but do not assimilate equally all the food items they ingested. It notes that the researchers analyzed several tadpoles species including Bufo melanostictus, Fejevarya limnocharis, and Microhyla ornata collected from Indian bodies of water. It mentions that the organic matter detritus was an important food item for all the species. Further, the feeding behavior of tadpoles showed spatial habitat separation and its degree of selective feeding on different algal genera were observed.