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Over the past decade, mRNA-based therapy has displayed significant promise in a wide range of clinical applications. The most striking example of the leap in the development of mRNA technologies was the mass vaccination against COVID-19 during the pandemic. The emergence of large-scale technology and positive experience of mRNA immunization sparked the development of antiviral and anti-cancer mRNA vaccines as well as therapeutic mRNA agents for genetic and other diseases. To facilitate mRNA delivery, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been successfully employed. However, the diverse use of mRNA therapeutic approaches requires the development of adaptable LNP delivery systems that can control the kinetics of mRNA uptake and expression in target cells. Here, we report effective mRNA delivery into cultured mammalian cells (HEK293T, HeLa, DC2.4) and living mouse muscle tissues by liposomes containing either 1,26-bis(cholest-5-en-3β-yloxycarbonylamino)-7,11,16,20-tetraazahexacosane tetrahydrochloride (2X3) or the newly applied 1,30-bis(cholest-5-en-3β-yloxycarbonylamino)-9,13,18,22-tetraaza-3,6,25,28-tetraoxatriacontane tetrahydrochloride (2X7) cationic lipids. Using end-point and real-time monitoring of Fluc mRNA expression, we showed that these LNPs exhibited an unusually delayed (of over 10 h in the case of the 2X7-based system) but had highly efficient and prolonged reporter activity in cells. Accordingly, both LNP formulations decorated with 1,2-distearoyl- sn -glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine- N -[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-PEG 2000 ) provided efficient luciferase production in mice, peaking on day 3 after intramuscular injection. Notably, the bioluminescence was observed only at the site of injection in caudal thigh muscles, thereby demonstrating local expression of the model gene of interest. The developed mRNA delivery systems hold promise for prophylactic applications, where sustained synthesis of defensive proteins is required, and open doors to new possibilities in mRNA-based therapies.

In response to stress stimuli, eukaryotic cells typically suppress protein synthesis. This leads to the release of mRNAs from polysomes, their condensation with RNA-binding proteins, and the formation of non-membrane-bound cytoplasmic compartments called stress granules (SGs). SGs contain 40S but generally lack 60S ribosomal subunits. It is known that cycloheximide, emetine, and anisomycin, the ribosome inhibitors that block the progression of 80S ribosomes along mRNA and stabilize polysomes, prevent SG assembly. Conversely, puromycin, which induces premature termination, releases mRNA from polysomes and stimulates the formation of SGs. The same effect is caused by some translation initiation inhibitors, which lead to polysome disassembly and the accumulation of mRNAs in the form of stalled 48S preinitiation complexes. Based on these and other data, it is believed that the trigger for SG formation is the presence of mRNA with extended ribosome-free segments, which tend to form condensates in the cell. In this study, we evaluated the ability of various small-molecule translation inhibitors to block or stimulate the assembly of SGs under conditions of severe oxidative stress induced by sodium arsenite. Contrary to expectations, we found that ribosome-targeting elongation inhibitors of a specific type, which arrest solitary 80S ribosomes at the beginning of the mRNA coding regions but do not interfere with all subsequent ribosomes in completing translation and leaving the transcripts (such as harringtonine, lactimidomycin, or T-2 toxin), completely prevent the formation of arsenite-induced SGs. These observations suggest that the presence of even a single 80S ribosome on mRNA is sufficient to prevent its recruitment into SGs, and the presence of extended ribosome-free regions of mRNA is not sufficient for SG formation. We propose that mRNA entry into SGs may be mediated by specific contacts between RNA-binding proteins and those regions on 40S subunits that remain inaccessible when ribosomes are associated.