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Background: Sensitive diagnostics are needed for effective management and surveillance of schistosomiasis so that current transmission interruption goals set by WHO can be achieved. We aimed to screen the Schistosoma haematobium secretome to find antibody biomarkers of schistosome infection, validate their diagnostic performance in samples from endemic populations, and evaluate their utility as point of care immunochromatographic tests (POC-ICTs) to diagnose urogenital schistosomiasis in the field. Methods: We did a biomarker identification study, in which we constructed a proteome array containing 992 validated and predicted proteins from S haematobium and screened it with serum and urine antibodies from endemic populations in Gabon, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. Arrayed antigens that were IgG-reactive and a select group of antigens from the worm extracellular vesicle proteome, predicted to be diagnostically informative, were then evaluated by ELISA using the same samples used to probe arrays, and samples from individuals residing in a low-endemicity setting (ie, Pemba and Unguja islands, Zanzibar, Tanzania). The two most sensitive and specific antigens were incorporated into POC-ICTs to assess their ability to diagnose S haematobium infection from serum in a field-deployable format. Findings: From array probing, in individuals who were infected, 208 antigens were the targets of significantly elevated IgG responses in serum and 45 antigens were the targets of significantly elevated IgG responses in urine. Of the five proteins that were validated by ELISA, Sh-TSP-2 (area under the curve [AUC]serum=0·98 [95% CI 0·95-1·00]; AUCurine=0·96 [0·93-0·99]), and MS3_01370 (AUCserum=0·93 [0·89-0·97]; AUCurine=0·81 [0·72-0·89]) displayed the highest overall diagnostic performance in each biofluid and exceeded that of S haematobium-soluble egg antigen in urine (AUC=0·79 [0·69-0·90]). When incorporated into separate POC-ICTs, Sh-TSP-2 showed absolute specificity and a sensitivity of 75% and MS3_01370 showed absolute specificity and a sensitivity of 89%. Interpretation: We identified numerous biomarkers of urogenital schistosomiasis that could form the basis of novel antibody diagnostics for this disease. Two of these antigens, Sh-TSP-2 and MS3_01370, could be used as sensitive, specific, and field-deployable diagnostics to support schistosomiasis control and elimination initiatives, with particular focus on post-elimination surveillance. This study received financial support from Merck Global Health Institute and the Australian Trade and Investment Commission (Australian Tropical Medicine Commercialisation grants programme ATMC50322). Research for the Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission project was funded by the University of Georgia Research Foundation, which is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for the Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation projects (prime award number 50816, sub-award number RR374-053/4893206). SK received financial support by sub-award number RR374-053/4893196 and via direct grants from the Gates Foundation (investment identification numbers OPP1191423 and OPP1198086). AL was funded by a National Health and Medical Research Council Senior Principal Research Fellowship (number APP1117504). BAT was funded by a James Cook University Postgraduate Scholarship. GGM was funded by an Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine postgraduate scholarship. Funding was granted to AAA by a European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership senior fellowship training award (number TA_11_40200). FM was funded by the Thrasher Research Fund (number 12440) and the Wellcome Trust (number 108061/Z/15/Z). Sí

We estimated the financial costs of different interventions against urogenital schistosomiasis, implemented by the Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission (ZEST) project, on Pemba and Unguja islands, Tanzania. We used available data on project activities, resources used, and costs reported in the accounting information systems of ZEST partners. The costs were estimated for all the activities related to snail control, behavior change interventions, the impact assessment surveys, and management of the whole program. Costs are presented in US$ for the full duration of the ZEST project from 2011/2012 to 2017. The total financial costs of implementing snail control activities over 5 years, excluding the costs for donated Bayluscide, were US$55,796 on Pemba and US$73,581 on Unguja, mainly driven by personnel costs. The total financial costs of implementing behavior change activities were US$109,165 on Pemba and US$155,828 on Unguja, with costs for personnel accounting for 47% on Pemba and 69% on Unguja. Costs of implementing biannual mass drug administration refer to the estimated 2.4 million treatments provided on Pemba over 4 years (2013–2016), and do not include the costs of donated praziquantel. The total cost per provided treatment was, on average, US$0.21. This study showed the value of exploiting administrative data to estimate costs of major global health interventions. It also provides an evidence base for financial costs and main cost drivers of implementing multiple combinations of intervention sets that inform decisions regarding the feasibility and affordability of implementing schistosomiasis control and elimination strategies.

As part of its diverse portfolio, the Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE) included two cluster-randomized trials evaluating interventions that could potentially lead to interruption of schistosomiasis transmission (elimination) in areas of Africa with low prevalence and intensity of infection. These studies, conducted in Zanzibar and Côte d’Ivoire, demonstrated that multiyear mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel failed to interrupt the transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis, even when provided biannually and/or supplemented by small-scale implementation of additional interventions. Other SCORE activities related to elimination included a feasibility and acceptability assessment of test–treat–track–test–treat (T5) strategies and mathematical modeling. Future evaluations of interventions to eliminate schistosomiasis should recognize the difficulties inherent in conducting randomized controlled trials on elimination and in measuring small changes where baseline prevalence is low. Highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tests for use in very low–prevalence areas for schistosomiasis are not routinely available, which complicates accurate measurement of infection rates and assessment of changes resulting from interventions in these settings. Although not encountered in these two studies, as prevalence and intensity decrease, political and community commitment to population-wide MDA may decrease. Because of this potential problem, SCORE developed and funded the T5 strategy implemented in Egypt, Kenya, and Tanzania. It is likely that focal MDA campaigns, along with more targeted approaches, including a T5 strategy and snail control, will need to be supplemented with the provision of clean water and sanitation and behavior change communications to achieve interruption of schistosome transmission.

Herein, we summarize what we consider are major contributions resulting from the Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE) program, including its key findings and key messages from those findings. Briefly, SCORE’s key findings are as follows: i) biennial mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel can control schistosomiasis to moderate levels of prevalence; ii) MDA alone will not achieve elimination; iii) to attain and sustain control throughout endemic areas, persistent hotspots need to be identified following a minimal number of years of annual MDA and controlled through adaptive strategies; iv) annual MDA is more effective than biennial MDA in high-prevalence areas; v) the current World Health Organization thresholds for decision-making based on the prevalence of heavy infections should be redefined; and vi) point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen urine assays are useful for Schistosoma mansoni mapping in low-to-moderate prevalence areas. The data and specimens collected and curated through SCORE efforts will continue to be critical resource for future research. Besides providing useful information for program managers and revision of guidelines for schistosomiasis control and elimination, SCORE research and outcomes have identified additional questions that need to be answered as the schistosomiasis community continues to implement effective, evidence-based programs. An overarching contribution of SCORE has been increased cohesiveness within the schistosomiasis field-oriented community, thereby fostering new and productive collaborations. Based on SCORE’s findings and experiences, we propose new approaches, thresholds, targets, and goals for control and elimination of schistosomiasis, and recommend research and evaluation activities to achieve these targets and goals.

Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections cause significant morbidity in children and women of reproductive age. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends preventive chemotherapy (PC) of at-risk populations with anthelminthics to control these infections. Historically, STH are very intensively transmitted in Pemba Island (Zanzibar). A survey conducted in 1994 in 12 schools estimated a STH prevalence near to 100%. This extremely high prevalence induced the introduction of PC in the island; initially, however, PC was not regularly administered because of difficulties linked to drug procurement. A second STH survey, conducted in 2011, in 24 schools estimated a prevalence of STH of 89%; after this survey, PC was regularly administered until 2018. We conducted a survey in 2021 using the same method as that used in 2011. The prevalence of STH was evaluated at 80% (95% CI 78.1–81.5) and most of the STH cases were due to Trichuris trichiura. More than 32% (95% CI 30.3–34.0) of the children investigated had infections of moderate or heavy intensity. PC has been conducted for over 25 years in Pemba Island. However, despite its beneficial impact, both the prevalence and the intensity of STH infections remain high, and the intervention has been insufficient in controlling STH morbidity. This is probably due to a combination of irregular PC, climatic conditions favourable to STH transmission, the low sensitivity of T. trichiura to benzimidazoles, high population density and poor sanitation. Improvement of sanitation coverage remains a key measure to permanently reduce the prevalence and intensity of STH. Possible changes to the present PC approaches to better control STH in Pemba would be (i) to assure high coverage in all schools, (ii) to use mebendazole instead of albendazole given its better activity on T. trichiura and (iii) to use a combination of ivermectin and mebendazole to further increase anthelminthic efficacy on T. trichiura.

Background Considerable progress towards the elimination of urogenital schistosomiasis was made by the Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission project from 2012 till 2016, when biannual praziquantel mass drug administration (MDA) alone or with additional snail control or behaviour change interventions were implemented. Annual MDA was continued in 2017 and 2018, but not in 2019, imposing a 16-month treatment gap. We monitored the Schistosoma haematobium prevalence from 2012 till 2020 and assessed recrudescence patterns with focus on 2020. Methodology Repeated cross-sectional surveys were conducted from 2011/12 till 2020 in 90 communities and 90 schools in Zanzibar. Annually, around 4,500 adults and up to 20,000 schoolchildren were surveyed. The S. haematobium prevalence was detected by urine filtration and reagent strips. In 2020, risk factors for infection were investigated using generalized estimated equation models. Principal findings In adults, the apparent S. haematobium prevalence was 3.9% in 2011 and 0.4% in 2020. In schoolchildren, the prevalence decreased from 6.6% in 2012 to 1.2% in 2019 with vicissitudes over the years. Prominent recrudescence of infection from 2.8% in 2019 to 9.1% (+225%) in 2020 was observed in 29 schools with historically moderate prevalences (≥10%). Compared with 2019, reinfection in 2020 was particularly striking in boys aged 9–16 years. Being male was a risk factor for infection in 2020 (adults: odds ratio (OR): 6.24, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.96–19.60; schoolchildren: OR: 2.06, 95% CI: 1.52–2.78). Living near to a natural freshwater body significantly increased the odds of infection in adults (OR: 2.90, CI: 1.12–7.54). Conclusions/Significance After 11 rounds of MDA over 7 years and a 16-month treatment gap, the urogenital schistosomiasis prevalence considerably rebounded in hotspot areas. Future elimination efforts in Zanzibar should focus on re-intensifying MDA plus additional interventions in hotspot areas. In low-prevalence areas, the strategy might be adapted from MDA to targeted surveillance-response., Author summary Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. On the Zanzibar islands, United Republic of Tanzania, interventions to eliminate urogenital schistosomiasis commenced in 2012. From 2012 to 2016, the population was treated biannually with praziquantel and, additionally, some areas received mollusciciding against the intermediate host snail, or educational measures for behavior change. Mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel was continued annually in 2017 and 2018, but not in 2019. As a result of the interventions, the overall S. haematobium prevalence was reduced to 0.4% in adults and 3.4% in schoolchildren in 2020. However, in some areas, the MDA gap in 2019 resulted in a considerable rebound of infections. The recrudescence in 2020 was particularly striking for boys aged 9–16 years. In general, in 2020, male participants had higher odds of infection than females. Adults living near to a natural freshwater body also showed an increased risk of S. haematobium infection. Future elimination efforts in Zanzibar should focus on re-intensifying elimination interventions, including MDA, snail control and behavior change in hotspot areas. In low-prevalence areas, the strategy might be adapted from MDA to targeted interventions, such as surveillance-response.

This chapter introduced the history of schistosomiasis control in Zanzibar, then we focused on the main activities/initiatives of schistosomiasis control, introduce its background, goals, methods and findings, etc. In the end, the national plan which is associated with schistosomiasis control in Zanzibar was briefly introduced.

Schistosomiasis is a public health problem mostly in Africa. In 2014, World Health Organization (WHO) signed a tripartite memorandum of understanding (MOU) with China and Tanzania-Zanzibar paving the way for piloting interventions for schistosomiasis elimination in Zanzibar. The study has been designed including the transmission pattern of schistosomiasis; the effectiveness studies of praziquantel from China and mass drug administration (MDA) for suitable method of human treatment; biological study of snails and effectiveness of novel molluscicides from China in laboratory and field for the suitable method of snail control; KAP study and health education design for suitable method of behavior interventions by health education. The integrated measures will be implemented after baseline surveillance. At last, the effectiveness of the integrated measure will be evaluated by the index of snail density, prevalence, and KAP of human.

Highlights • Children self-reported changes in urogenital schistosomiasis risk taking behaviours. • Children self-reported an increase in swallowing anthelmintic drugs during MDA. • Rebranding the concept of “worm” to “blood fluke” created a critical perceived health threat. • The Health Belief Model was a viable foundation for the behavioural intervention., Urogenital schistosomiasis is a common experience among children in Zanzibar. There is a paucity of behavioural science-based, health education and behaviour change (HEBC) interventions for school-aged children, those at greatest risk for urogenital schistosomiasis. We assessed the influence of a HEBC intervention, guided by the Health Belief model, among rural schoolchildren on Pemba and Unguja islands in Zanzibar, Tanzania. From 2012 to 2016, a cluster-randomized trial to assess three different interventions against urogenital schistosomiasis was conducted in 90 schools and shehias across Zanzibar. The HEBC intervention was implemented in 15 schools per island. In 2017, at the trial conclusion, we administered written questionnaires to schoolchildren from 4 HEBC intervention schools and 4 not HEBC exposed schools on each island, respectively. Responses were compared between students that were exposed or not exposed to the HEBC intervention using a Fisher's exact test. A total of 1451 students, 708 from intervention and 743 from non-intervention schools completed the questionnaire. Noting some between island differences, students who had received the HEBC interventions reported significant improvements in knowledge about Schistosoma haematobium transmission and personal risk, strategies for schistosomiasis prevention, and self-reported changes in risk behaviours: stopped washing laundry/dishes 49.4% (350/708) versus 5.8% (43/743), stopped bathing in streams/ponds 49.4% (350/708) versus 4.2% (31/743), and stopped playing in streams/ponds 40.8% (289/708) versus 10.8% (80/743). HEBC exposed children also reported a significant increase in swallowing tablets during mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns (when they had not before) 30.2% (214/708) versus 4.6% (34/743). The school based HEBC interventions were associated with desirable positive behaviour change among students. Data suggest that scaling up HEBC interventions to all schools in high-risk areas, augmented with bi-annual MDA, can help to reduce prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis in Zanzibar, strengthening the possibility for future disease elimination.

Highlights • Women were enthusiastic about keeping healthy during pregnancy. • Women strongly valued high quality antenatal care and were encouraged to attend clinics by their families and community members. • Women demonstrated poor retention of knowledge about schistosomiasis from school. • The majority of women interviewed had missed mass drug administration rounds of praziquantel due to pregnancy or concerns about side effects. • Women were unanimously agreeable to taking praziquantel during pregnancy if advised to do so by a healthcare professional., Many countries exclude pregnant and lactating women from mass drug administration (MDA) programmes with praziquantel against schistosomiasis due to historic safety concerns over drug use during gestation and breast feeding. More than 10 years of empirical evidence from the field and a growing body of dedicated research has prompted the World Health Organisation and schistosomiasis control initiatives to advocate the inclusion of this vulnerable group into MDA. This qualitative descriptive case study explored, over a five-week period, the subjective experiences, perceptions, opinions, and attitudes of pregnant women attending government supported clinics on Unguja island, United Republic of Tanzania, towards praziquantel use during pregnancy in MDA programmes. The aim of the study was to identify and determine how to overcome potential barriers to effective use of MDA medications during pregnancy. Additionally, it was to determine trusted communication channels for future messaging and discover behavioural and community opportunities to increase participation of pregnant women in future MDA efforts. A 60 min, semi-structured qualitative interview was undertaken with 25 pregnant women recruited from 4 health centres on Unguja along with testing for Schistosoma haematobium infection. Using a modified-grounded theory approach, narrative data were transcribed, coded and analysed using a thematic analysis of the emergent themes. Women reported that they rely on traditional home remedies to stay healthy during pregnancy. Influenced by their mothers, husbands and neighbours, women predominately made medication choices during pregnancy and breastfeeding based on what they heard at home. Most women had been excluded from government MDA programmes in the past due to pregnancy. Women valued healthcare services for antenatal education and pregnancy advice. Women reported they would trust and follow direction from healthcare providers about taking praziquantel during pregnancy. Antenatal clinics offer an excellent opportunity to educate and expand praziquantel treatment to this cohort. Efforts should be augmented with training for providers and behavioural education for the community as a whole and family members of pregnant women., Graphical abstract Women were enthusiastic to attend local antenatal health education and were unanimously agreeable to taking praziquantel against urogenital schistosomiasis during pregnancy if advised to do so by a healthcare professional. Picture credit: Bobbie Person Image, graphical abstract

A cross-sectional survey of schistosomiasis was carried out in Pemba Island, Zanzibar from 2017 to 2019. The overall infection rate was 1.84% (353/19,194, 95% CI: 1.65%–2.03%). A total of 73.53% of shehia (50/68) were found to be infected with schistosomiasis, and the highest infection rate reached 18.77%. The infection rate of children aged 6–18 was 2.76%. The student infection rate was 2.2%, higher than other occupations. The infection rate of primary school students is 2.41%. There were statistically significant differences in the infection rate among regions, age groups, occupations, and education levels. Snail habitats were mainly found in stream (79.22%). Positive snail habitats were mainly found in stream (51.43%). Control measures must be strengthened in high infection areas and groups. Snail monitoring and control should be intensified in the future.

Background Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a debilitating neglected tropical disease which is targeted for elimination through co-administration of a single dose of ivermectin and albendazole in the affected population. Following implementation of such a treatment campaign over a period of years, control programmes are urged to conduct a transmission assessment survey to monitor the impact of the treatment and to ascertain whether the transmission is interrupted to a level that can no longer sustain transmission and hence mass drug administration (MDA) can be halted. Objective:This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of LF infection in Zanzibar communities, 13 years after stopping MDA, so as to inform and guide the control program. MethodologyA Finger prick blood sample was collected from each participant after obtaining informed consent. The sample was assessed for the presence of Wucheria bancrofti circulating antigen using rapid immunochromatographic test. ResultsA total of 2555 subjects were enrolled (1231 in Pemba and 1324 in Unguja) in the study with a mean age of 23.0yrs ± SD 18.9 (95% CI = 22.3-23.8). There were more female (53.9%) than male (46.1%); and their mean age significantly differed (t-test = 7.5, p = 0.00001). Only 2478 individuals gave blood sample . Of these, 88 (3.55%) were found to be infected with W. bancrofti. Overall, the prevalence of infection was higher in Pemba (5.1%) than in Unguja (2.1%). The prevalence of infection was similar between different older age groups , children aged 1-5yrs in Pemba had the highest prevalence indicating that transmission is ongoing. Observation of development of clinical manifestation, lymphoedema and hydrocele was also assessed. Overall, only 1.1% of the individuals had lymphoedema/elephantiasis; with male presented with more of those signs (1.6%) than female (0.7%). There was no male subject found to have hydrocele , although 8.3% of male had filariasis.The assessment of treatment history revealed that majority (64.7%) of the respondents had received at least one treatment round during their lifetime. Historical treatments with ivermectin did not correlate with current individual levels of infection but individuals who reported to have received 2 and 4 rounds of treatment were not found to be infected with filariasis.Conclusion and RecommendationIn view of our findings it clearly shows that the prevalence of LF in Zanzibar is still high to exceed the set threshold for discontinuation of MDA campaign. Children as young as 5yrs were found infected. It is therefore important to consider continuation of MDA so as to prevent potential disease sequel which might develop.

The Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation (SCORE) was created in 2008 to answer questions of importance to program managers working to reduce the burden of schistosomiasis in Africa. In the past, intermediate host snail monitoring and control was an important part of integrated schistosomiasis control. However, in Africa, efforts to control snails have declined dramatically over the last 30 years. A resurgence of interest in the control of snails has been prompted by the realization, backed by a World Health Assembly resolution (WHA65.21), that mass drug administration alone may be insufficient to achieve schistosomiasis elimination. SCORE has supported work on snail identification and mapping and investigated how xenomonitoring techniques can aid in the identification of infected snails and thereby identify potential transmission areas. Focal mollusciciding with niclosamide was undertaken in Zanzibar and Côte d’Ivoire as a part of elimination studies. Two studies involving biological control of snails were conducted: one explored the association of freshwater riverine prawns and snail hosts in Côte d’Ivoire and the other assessed the current distribution of Procambarus clarkii, the invasive Louisiana red swamp crayfish, in Kenya and its association with snail hosts and schistosomiasis transmission. SCORE also supported modeling studies on the importance of snail control in achieving elimination and a meta-analysis of the impact of molluscicide-based snail control programs on human schistosomiasis prevalence and incidence. SCORE’s snail control studies contributed to increased investment in building capacity, and specimens collected during SCORE research deposited in the Schistosomiasis Collections at the Natural History Museum (SCAN) will provide a valuable resource for the years to come.

Accurate diagnosis of urogenital schistosomiasis is crucial for disease surveillance and control. Routine diagnostic methods, however, lack sensitivity when assessing patients with low levels of infection still able to maintain pathogen transmission. Therefore, there is a need for highly sensitive diagnostic tools that can be used at the point-of-care in endemic areas. Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is a rapid and sensitive diagnostic tool that has been used to diagnose several pathogens at the point-of-care. Here, the analytical performance of a previously developed RPA assay (RT-ShDra1-RPA) targeting the Schistosoma haematobium Dra1 genomic region was assessed using commercially synthesised S. haematobium Dra1 copies and laboratory-prepared samples spiked with S. haematobium eggs. Clinical performance was also assessed by comparing diagnostic outcomes with that of a reference diagnostic standard, urine-egg microscopy. The RT-ShDra1-RPA was able to detect 1 &times, 101 copies of commercially synthesised Dra1 DNA as well as one S. haematobium egg within laboratory-spiked ddH2O samples. When compared with urine-egg microscopy, the overall sensitivity and specificity of the RT-ShDra1-RPA assay was 93.7% (&plusmn, 88.7&ndash, 96.9) and 100% (&plusmn, 69.1&ndash, 100), respectively. Positive and negative predictive values were 100% (&plusmn, 97.5&ndash, 100) and 50% (&plusmn, 27.2&ndash, 72.8), respectively. The RT-ShDra1-RPA therefore shows promise as a rapid and highly sensitive diagnostic tool able to diagnose urogenital schistosomiasis at the point-of-care.

Background: Schistosomiasis seriously endangers the health of African people, hinders local economic and social development, and becomes a serious local public health problem. However, in addition to preventive chemotherapy, other social, environmental and health promotion measures are progressing slowly, lack of sanitation, treated water, and systematic health education, the people are still at risk of infection. In 2011, a survey of 24 school in Zanzibar showed that the average infection rate of Schistosoma haematobium was 8% (0-38%) in Unguja, and was 15% (1-43%) in Pemba. Methods: According to the shape of the island, the island is divided into three regions: the south, the middle, and the north. A Shehia in the southern, central and northern parts of Pemba Island was randomly selected respectively, the schistosomiasis health education session was conducted in primary and secondary schools of the selected Shehias. The students were randomly selected for schistosomiasis cognitive level test by designed questionnaire including 8 knowledge questions and 4 behavior questions before and after health education, through a chi-square test of the awareness rate and the correct behavior rate of schistosomiasis before and after the health education, the effect of health education session was evaluated. Result: A total 712 students were sampled before and after the health education in 8 schools. Before the health education session, the awareness rates of schistosomiasis were 64.62% and 68.75% among primary and secondary school respectively. After the session, the awareness rates increased to 79.74% and 84.70% respectively, and the difference was statistically significant (χ2=179.3, P

Background Accurate diagnosis of urogenital schistosomiasis is vital for surveillance and control programmes. While a number of diagnostic techniques are available there is a need for simple, rapid and highly sensitive point-of-need (PON) tests in areas where infection prevalence and intensity are low. Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) is a sensitive isothermal molecular diagnostic technology that is rapid, portable and has been used at the PON for several pathogens. Results A real time fluorescence RPA assay (RT-ShDra1-RPA) targeting the Schistosoma haematobium Dra1 genomic repeat region was developed and was able to detect 1 fg of S. haematobium gDNA. Results were obtained within 10 minutes using a small portable battery powered tube scanner device that incubated reactions at 40 °C, whilst detecting DNA amplification and fluorescence over time. The assay’s performance was evaluated using 20 urine samples, with varying S. haematobium egg counts, from school children from Pemba Island, Zanzibar Archipelago, Tanzania. Prior to RPA analysis, samples were prepared using a quick crude field DNA extraction method, the Speed Extract Kit (Qiagen, Manchester, UK). Positive assay results were obtained from urine samples with egg counts of 1–926 eggs/10 ml, except for two samples, which had inconclusive results. These two samples had egg counts of two and three eggs/10 ml of urine. Conclusions The RT-ShDra1-RPA assay proved robust for S. haematobium gDNA detection and was able to amplify and detect S. haematobium DNA in urine samples from infected patients. The assay’s speed and portability, together with the use of crude sample preparation methods, could advance the rapid molecular diagnosis of urogenital schistosomiasis at the PON within endemic countries.

Summary Background Elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem and interruption of transmission in selected areas are targets set by WHO for 2025. Our aim was to assess biannual mass drug administration (MDA) applied alone or with complementary snail control or behaviour change interventions for the reduction of Schistosoma haematobium prevalence and infection intensity in children from Zanzibar and to compare the effect between the clusters. Methods In a 5-year repeated cross-sectional cluster-randomised trial, 90 shehias (small administrative regions; clusters) in Zanzibar eligible owing to available natural open freshwater bodies and public primary schools were randomly allocated (ratio 1:1:1) to receive one of three interventions: biannual MDA with praziquantel alone (arm 1) or in combination with snail control (arm 2), or behaviour change activities (arm 3). Neither participants nor field or laboratory personnel were blinded to the intervention arms. From 2012 to 2017, annually, a single urine sample was collected from approximately 100 children aged 9–12 years in the main public primary school of each shehia. The primary outcome was S haematobium infection prevalence and intensity in 9–12-year-old children after 5 years of follow-up. This study is completed and was registered with the ISRCTN, number 48837681. Findings The trial was done from Nov 1, 2011, through to Dec 31, 2017 and recruitment took place from Nov 2, 2011, until May 17, 2017. At baseline we enrolled 8278 participants, of whom 2899 (35%) were randomly allocated to arm 1, 2741 (33%) to arm 2, and 2638 (32%) to arm 3. 120 (4·2%) of 2853 in arm 1, 209 (7·8%) of 2688 in arm 2, and 167 (6·4%) of 2613 in arm 3 had S haematobium infections at baseline. Heavy infections (≥50 eggs per 10 mL of urine) were found in 126 (1·6%) of 8073 children at baseline. At the 5-year endline survey, 46 (1·4%) of 3184 in arm 1, 56 (1·7%) of 3217 (odds ratio [OR] 1·2 [95% CI 0·6–2·7] vs arm 1) in arm 2, and 58 (1·9%) of 3080 (1·3 [0·6–2·9]) in arm 3 had S haematobium infections. Heavy infections were detected in 33 (0·3%) of 9462 children. Interpretation Biannual MDA substantially reduced the S haematobium prevalence and infection intensity but was insufficient to interrupt transmission. Although snail control or behaviour change activities did not significantly boost the effect of MDA in our study, they might enhance interruption of transmission when tailored to focal endemicity and applied for a longer period. It is now necessary to focus on reducing prevalence in remaining hotspot areas and to introduce new methods of surveillance and public health response so that the important gains can be maintained and advanced. Funding University of Georgia Research Foundation Inc and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Schistosomiasis remains a serious health problem in Africa. Although a strong, coordinated agenda for research on this disease has been in place for the last 50 years in Zanzibar, data storage, retrieval of survey data and management remain problem areas. We investigated the use of Google Earth (GE) in conjunction with a hand-held, global positioning system as a pilot project for managing schistosomiasis control. In this way, risk areas can be surveyed and followed up by visualizing both the distribution of human infections and that of the intermediate snail host together with environmental information. A platform with three spatial databases was created: i) Distribution of infected humans; ii) Distribution of the intermediate snail host in ponds (infected and not infected specimens); iii) Distribution of the intermediate snail host in streams (infected and non-infected specimens). The GE spatial database increased the efficiency of follow-up case treatment as well as snail control and contributed also to the discovery of previously unknown areas in need of snail control. We conclude that this platform is advantageous not only by being useful for management and visualization of spatial data, but also because it is easy to operate and available free of charge.

Background Urine filtration and microhaematuria reagent strips are basic standard diagnostic methods to detect urogenital schistosomiasis. We assessed their accuracy for the diagnosis of light intensity infections with Schistosoma haematobium as they occur in individuals living in Zanzibar, an area targeted for interruption of transmission. Methods Urine samples were collected from children and adults in surveys conducted annually in Zanzibar from 2013 through 2016 and examined with the urine filtration method to count S. haematobium eggs and with the reagent strip test (Hemastix) to detect microhaematuria as a proxy for infection. Ten percent of the urine filtration slides were read twice. Sensitivity was calculated for reagent strips, stratified by egg counts reflecting light intensity sub-groups, and kappa statistics for the agreement of urine filtration readings. Results Among the 39,207 and 18,155 urine samples examined from children and adults, respectively, 5.4% and 2.7% were S. haematobium egg-positive. A third (34.7%) and almost half (46.7%) of the egg-positive samples from children and adults, respectively, had ultra-low counts defined as 1–5 eggs per 10 ml urine. Sensitivity of the reagent strips increased significantly for each unit log10 egg count per 10 ml urine in children (odds ratio, OR: 4.7; 95% confidence interval, CI: 4.0–5.7; P < 0.0001) and adults (OR: 2.6; 95% CI: 1.9–3.7, P < 0.0001). Sensitivity for diagnosing ultra-light intensity infections was very low in children (50.1%; 95% CI: 46.5–53.8%) and adults (58.7%; 95% CI: 51.9–65.2%). Among the 4477 and 1566 urine filtration slides read twice from children and adults, most were correctly identified as negative or positive (kappa = 0.84 for children and kappa = 0.81 for adults). However, 294 and 75 slides had discrepant results and were positive in only one of the two readings. The majority of these discrepant slides (76.9% of children and 84.0% of adults) had counts of 1–5 eggs per 10 ml urine. Conclusions We found that many individuals infected with S. haematobium in Zanzibar excrete > 5 eggs per 10 ml urine. These ultra-light infections impose a major challenge for accurate diagnosis. Next-generation diagnostic tools to be used in settings where interruption of transmission is the goal should reliably detect infections with ≤ 5 eggs per 10 ml urine. Trial Registration ISRCTN, ISRCTN48837681. Registered 05 September 2012 - Retrospectively registered. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3136-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background In the roadmap on the neglected tropical diseases (NTD) the World Health Organization (WHO) aims at attaining at least 75% coverage of preventive chemotherapy in pre-school and school-age children by 2020. A randomized controlled trial was used to compare the effectiveness of praziquantel in treating Schistosoma haematobium in Africa using two different sources for the drug, Merck Limited Partnership (KgaA), Germany and Nanjing Pharmaceutical Factory (NPF), China. Methods More than 6,000 participants testing positive for S. haematobium infection were enrolled from three villages (shehias) situated in the northern, middle and southern part of Pemba Island, Zanzibar. Applying criteria of inclusion and exclusion, resulted in a study population of 152 people (84 males, 68 females). A randomized controlled trial was conducted assigning participants to either praziquantel from NPF or Merck KGaA. After one month, the cure rate of S. haematobium and adverse events were compared to evaluate effectiveness. The ratio of male to female, the ratio of light/high infection intensity, and the average value of age were calculated between the two drug manufacturers. Chi-squared test and T-test were used for consistency analysis. Results Out of the total of 73 cases receiving praziquantel from NPF, the cure rate achieved was 97.3% (73/75), while the 74 cases receiving the drug from Merck KgaA reached a similar cure rate (96.1% or 74/77). There was no significant difference between the two outcomes (χ2 = 0.003, P = 0.956). Among the 75 patients treat, only one (a 16-years old female student), who had received the drug made in China had slight adverse reactions manifested as dizziness, headache and abdominal pain. Conclusion The efficacy of China-made praziquantel does not differ significantly from praziquantel made by Merck KGaA in Germany. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03133832, Author summary Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) with praziquantel the only effective drug available. It is estimated that about 800 million people are currently at risk for this disease with more than 200 million people infected. A large drug donation partnership between Merck, Darmstadt, Germany and the World Health Organization supports widespread, successful preventive chemotherapy programs, but the donated drugs does not meet the entire need, particularly not in Africa. The primary aim of our study was to evaluate the efficacy of China-made praziquantel to explore whether the drug could complement preventive chemotherapy programs in Africa. A randomized controlled trial was conducted assigning participants to two groups, one receiving praziquantel from NPF, the other from Merck KGaA. After one month, the cure rate of S. haematobium and were compared to evaluate effectiveness and document potential adverse events. The outcome showed that the two sources of praziquantel that did not differ significantly from each other. China-made praziquantel can thus be trusted to complement the current use of the drug from Merck KGaA in Africa making it possible to enlarge drug provision programs.

Background Elimination of urogenital schistosomiasis transmission is a priority for the Zanzibar Ministry of Health. Preventative chemotherapy together with additional control interventions have successfully alleviated much of the disease burden. However, a persistently high Schistosoma haematobium prevalence is found in certain areas. Our aim was to characterise and evaluate these persistent “hot-spots” of transmission and reinfection in comparison with low-prevalence areas, to support the intervention planning for schistosomiasis elimination in Zanzibar. Methods Prevalences of S. haematobium were annually determined by a single urine filtration in schoolchildren from 45 administrative areas (shehias) in Unguja in 2012, 2013 and 2014. Coverage data for biannual treatment with praziquantel were available from ministerial databases and internal surveys. Among the 45 shehias, five hot-spot (≥ 15 % prevalence) and two low-prevalence (≤ 5 %) shehias were identified and surveyed in mid-2014. Human-water contact sites (HWCSs) and the presence of S. haematobium-infected and uninfected Bulinus globosus, as well as safe water sources (SWSs) and their reliability in terms of water availability were determined and mapped. Results We found no major difference in the treatment coverage between persistent hot-spot and low-prevalence shehias. On average, there were considerably more HWCSs containing B. globosus in hot-spot than in low-prevalence shehias (n = 8 vs n = 2) and also more HWCSs containing infected B. globosus (n = 2 vs n = 0). There was no striking difference in the average abundance of SWSs in hot-spot and low-prevalence shehias (n = 45 vs n = 38) and also no difference when considering SWSs with a constant water supply (average: 62 % vs 62 %). The average number of taps with a constant water supply, however, was lower in hot-spot shehias (n = 7 vs n = 14). Average distances from schools to the nearest HWCS were considerably shorter in hot-spot shehias (n = 229 m vs n = 722 m). Conclusion The number of HWCSs, their infestation with B. globosus and their distance to schools seem to play a major role for a persistently high S. haematobium prevalence in children. In addition to treatment, increasing access to reliably working taps, targeted snail control at HWCSs near schools and enhanced behaviour change measures are needed to reduce prevalences in hot-spot areas and to finally reach elimination. Trial registration ISRCTN48837681. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1847-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background While the lifetime risk of developing cervical cancer (CaCx) and acquiring HIV is high for women in Tanzania, most women have not tested for HIV in the past year and most have never been screened for CaCx. Good management of both diseases, which have a synergistic relationship, requires integrated screening, prevention, and treatment services. The aim of this analysis is to assess the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of integrating HIV testing into CaCx prevention services in Tanzania, so as to inform scale-up strategies. Methods We analysed 2010 – 2013 service delivery data from 21 government health facilities in four regions of the country, to examine integration of HIV testing within newly introduced CaCx screening and treatment services, located in the reproductive and child health (RCH) section of the facility. Analysis included the proportion of clients offered and accepting the HIV test, reasons why testing was not offered or was declined, and HIV status of CaCx screening clients. Results A total of 24,966 women were screened for CaCx; of these, approximately one-quarter (26%) were referred in from HIV care and treatment clinics. Among the women of unknown HIV status (n = 18,539), 60% were offered an HIV test. The proportion of women offered an HIV test varied over time, but showed a trend of decline as the program expanded. Unavailability of HIV test kits at the facility was the most common reason for a CaCx screening client not to be offered an HIV test (71% of 6,321 cases). Almost all women offered (94%) accepted testing, and 5% of those tested (582 women) learned for the first time that they were HIV-positive. Conclusion Integrating HIV testing into CaCx screening services was highly acceptable to clients and was an effective means of reaching HIV-positive women who did not know their status; effectiveness was limited, however, by shortages of HIV test kits at facilities. Integration of HIV testing into CaCx screening services should be prioritized in HIV-endemic settings, but more work is needed to eliminate logistical barriers. The coverage of CaCx screening among HIV care and treatment-enrolled women in Tanzania may be low and should be examined.