Search

Precision medicine and personalized medicine are two approaches to healthcare that aim to tailor medical treatments and interventions to individual patients. These approaches are based on the idea that every patient'sgenetic makeup, lifestyle, andenvironmental factorsplay a critical role in their health outcomes and response to treatments.Precision medicineandpersonalized medicineare often used interchangeably, but they are slightly different. Precision medicine refers to the use of genetic andmolecular informationto identify specificdisease subtypesand develop targeted therapies. It involves analyzing a patient's DNA,RNA, andprotein expressionto better understand the underlying mechanisms of disease and tailor treatments to individual patients. Personalized medicine, on the other hand, takes into account not onlygenetic informationbut also other factors such as a patient's lifestyle, environment, andmedical historyto develop a comprehensive treatment plan that is tailored to the individual patient. The role of precision medicine and personalized medicine in the treatment of diseases has become more important in recent years due to advances in technology and our understanding of genetics and disease mechanisms. Precision medicine has already had significant success in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such asbreast cancerand lung cancer. By analyzing thegenetic mutationsin a patient's tumor, doctors can identify specific molecular targets and develop treatments that target those mutations. This approach has led to improved outcomes and fewerside effectscompared to traditional chemotherapy. Precision medicine is also being used to develop new treatments for other diseases, such asAlzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Personalized medicine is also playing an increasingly important role in the treatment of diseases. By taking into account a patient's lifestyle, environment, and medical history, doctors can develop a treatment plan that is tailored to the individual patient. For example, a patient with high blood pressure may benefit from a differenttreatment plandepending on their diet,exercise habits, and other lifestyle factors. By taking these factors into account, doctors can develop a morecomprehensive treatment planthat is more effective and has fewer side effects. In addition to its role in the treatment of diseases, precision medicine and personalized medicine also have important implications fordisease preventionandearly detection. By analyzing a patient's genetic makeup and otherrisk factors, doctors can identify individuals who are at high risk for certain diseases and develop targeted interventions to prevent the disease from developing. Overall, the role of precision medicine and personalized medicine in the treatment of diseases is rapidly growing. These approaches have already led to significant improvements in the treatment of certain types of cancer and are being used to develop new treatments for other diseases. As technology continues to advance and our understanding of genetics anddisease mechanismsimproves, precision medicine and personalized medicine will likely become even more important in the years to come.

Regenerative medicine is a rapidly evolving field that aims to restore, replace, or regenerate damaged tissues and organs using advanced biomedical techniques. It holds the potential to revolutionize healthcare by providing innovative solutions for a wide range of medical conditions that were previously considered incurable or difficult to treat. The fundamental principle of regenerative medicine is harnessing the body's innate healing mechanisms to stimulate tissue repair and regeneration. The field of regenerative medicine encompasses various approaches, each offering unique opportunities to address different aspects of tissue regeneration and repair. Stem cell therapy is one such approach. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the ability to differentiate into specialized cell types. They hold immense potential for regenerative medicine as they can be directed to become specific cell types required for tissue repair. Stem cell therapies have shown promising results in treating conditions such as spinal cord injuries, heart disease, and certain types of cancer. Tissue engineering is another crucial aspect of regenerative medicine. It involves combining cells, scaffolds, and growth factors to create functional tissue constructs. These constructs can be used to replace or repair damaged tissues and organs. Tissue engineering approaches have been successfully applied in the regeneration of skin, cartilage, bone, and blood vessels. Gene therapy is a promising avenue within regenerative medicine. It aims to correct or replace defective genes that cause disease. By introducing functional genes into targeted cells, gene therapy can potentially treat genetic disorders and promote tissue regeneration. This approach has shown promise in treating diseases such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and certain types of cancer. Biomaterials play a crucial role in regenerative medicine by providing a supportive environment for tissue regeneration. These materials can be used as scaffolds to guide cell growth, deliver therapeutic molecules, and promote tissue integration. Biomaterials have been utilized in applications such as bone regeneration, wound healing, and organ transplantation. The role of regenerative medicine goes beyond treating diseases and injuries. It also offers potential solutions to mitigate the shortage of organ donors, reduce the need for immunosuppressive drugs, and improve the quality of life for patients with chronic conditions. By stimulating the body's natural healing processes, regenerative medicine aims to restore normal tissue function rather than merely managing symptoms. Despite significant progress, challenges remain in the field of regenerative medicine. Ensuring the safety and efficacy of new therapies, optimizing manufacturing processes, and addressing regulatory and ethical considerations are ongoing concerns. However, with continued research, technological advancements, and collaborative efforts among scientists, clinicians, and regulatory authorities, regenerative medicine holds the promise of transforming the landscape of healthcare and providing innovative treatments for currently untreatable conditions. In conclusion, regenerative medicine has emerged as a multidisciplinary field with the potential to revolutionize healthcare. Through approaches such as stem cell therapy, tissue engineering, gene therapy, and biomaterials, regenerative medicine aims to restore tissue and organ function, offering new hope for patients with previously incurable conditions. Continued research and advancements in this field have the potential to significantly impact the future of medicine.

The aging process is a complex biological phenomenon that results in the gradual decline of physiological function and an increased risk of age-related diseases. While aging is a natural and inevitable process, several factors can influence the rate of aging and the onset of age-related diseases. One of the primary factors that contribute to the aging process is cellular damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other forms of oxidative stress. This damage can accumulate over time and lead to a range of age-related diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. To counteract the damaging effects of oxidative stress, the body relies on antioxidant defense systems that scavenge free radicals and prevent damage to cellular structures. Another factor that contributes to the aging process is the gradual decline of the immune system, known as immunesenescence. This decline can lead to an increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, decreased response to vaccinations, and an increased risk of cancer. In addition to cellular damage and immunesenescence, the aging process is also influenced by genetic and environmental factors. For example, lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and stress can impact the rate of aging and the development of age-related diseases. Similarly, genetic factors can contribute to the development of certain age-related diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Age-related diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in older adults. Some of the most common age-related diseases include cardiovascular disease, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. These diseases are often chronic and progressive, and their prevalence increases with age. Research has shown that interventions such as calorie restriction, exercise, and pharmaceutical agents such as rapamycin and metformin can slow the aging process and delay the onset of age-related diseases. These interventions target a range of pathways that contribute to aging, including those involved in cellular damage, immunesenescence, and genetic and environmental factors. In conclusion, the aging process is a complex biological phenomenon that is influenced by a range of genetic and environmental factors. Cellular damage caused by oxidative stress, immunesenescence, and genetic factors all contribute to the development of age-related diseases. While aging is a natural and inevitable process, interventions such as calorie restriction, exercise, and pharmaceutical agents can slow the aging process and delay the onset of age-related diseases.

Cancer is a complex disease that affects millions of people worldwide. While genetics and lifestyle factors play a significant role in cancer development, the role of diet and micronutrients in preventing and treating cancer is becoming increasingly apparent. Micronutrients, also known as vitamins and minerals, are essential for the proper function of the body's cells and play an important role in the immune system. Studies have shown that diets rich in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and whole grains are associated with a lower risk of various types of cancer. This is partly because these foods contain a variety of micronutrients, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, folate, selenium, and zinc, that have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Antioxidants are compounds that protect cells from damage caused by free radicals, which can contribute to cancer development. Micronutrients such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium act as antioxidants in the body and can help reduce the risk of cancer. In addition, some studies suggest that folate may reduce the risk of colon cancer, while zinc may play a role in preventing prostate cancer. However, it's important to note that not all micronutrients are beneficial for cancer prevention. For example, high doses of beta-carotene supplements may increase the risk of lung cancer in smokers. Therefore, it's best to get micronutrients through a balanced diet rather than supplements. In addition to preventing cancer, a healthy diet rich in micronutrients can also help in cancer treatment. People undergoing cancer treatment often experience side effects such as fatigue, loss of appetite, and weight loss, which can be addressed by ensuring adequate intake of nutrients. In conclusion, the role of micronutrients and diet in cancer prevention and treatment cannot be understated. A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and whole grains can help reduce the risk of cancer, while adequate intake of micronutrients such as vitamin C, vitamin E, folate, selenium, and zinc can provide additional protection. It's important to consult with a healthcare professional to ensure that dietary changes are appropriate for individual needs and medical conditions.

Microorganisms found in the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) are symbiotic under steady state conditions and have role in the homeostasis of the human host. The term microbiome is characterized by the collective genetic material contained in these microorganisms. Interestingly, even though there is a considerable variation in the diversity and abundance in the microbiota that occupy different habitats, metabolic mechanisms remain stable within healthy subjects. The composition and diversity of the microbiota vary considerably according to their region in the GIT and also vary in composition according to the age of the subject. Several factors such as diet, mode of delivery (vaginal or caesarean), consumption of antibiotics, geography, and environmental exposure affect their intraindividual variation and development. The effects of the microbiome could clarify the unidentified environmental risk factors in the development of autoimmune diseases, and it may have role in affecting the immune system and the course of the these diseases. It is now well known that pathological alterations in the intestinal microbiota (dysbiosis) can affect inflammation in the autoimmune diseases.

Multiple risk factors are for all types of cancers. These include endogenous factors and exogenous factors. The main constitutional and environmental risk factors are well clarified, but it remains unknown how they interact to contribute to the development of different cancers. Several relative risk factors may serve as important prognostic factors for the malignancies. Therefore, clinicians must appreciate the significance of taking a detailed patient history, including a social, family, and work history. A discussion of the most prevalent risk factors follows; however, it is not exhaustive. Therefore, in this book we aimed to summarize the main risk factors of each cancer.

Long-term complications are frequent in recovering COVID-19 cases. However, long-term complications of COVID-19 are currently unclear. If similar rate of long-term complications emerge following COVID-19, then we can expect a crashing wave of complications, which will have huge implication for treatment of the stretched healthcare resources in every country. A diverse group of symptoms, increasingly referred to as “Long COVID,” is also being reported in cases who did not need hospital treatment. These cases report a wide variety of manifestations, persisting for many months after acute infection. To date, most investigations on long COVID have been led by cases, and it proposes this is a frequent and disabling disease. More investigation informing clinical recommendations and our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this disease is urgently needed.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of central nervous system (CNS) which is characterized by unknown etiology and variable clinical evolution. Although, exact mechanisms of MS remained enigmatic, one may suggest that immune system can play a critical role. Due to important role of immune system in MS pathogenesis, several FDA-approved treatments have been introduced for MS which mostly affect different part of immune system. Plasmapheresis has also recently found a unique niche in the treatment of neurological disorders such as steroid unresponsive relapses of MS. Since, plasmapheresis has unspecific method i.e. removing plasma without special processing for removing exact pathological factors and then replacing that with fluids, elimination of some beneficial components also occurs during procedure of plasmapheresis. In this regard, several immune components have been suggested including autoantibodies with remyelinating effects and cytokines with dual role that their removing along with pathological factors via plasmapheresis may initially result in improvement in symptoms of MS patients, but this treatment can also lead to subsequent side-effects. In this review, we found that in addition to presence of autoantibodies with demyelinating effects, there is another repertoire of autoantibodies with remyelinating features. Furthermore, there is a predominant paradox in some part of immune system such as dual role of some cytokines. Taken together, our investigation suggested that although plasmapheresis is used as a common treatment for MS patients during relapsing phase, further studies should be undertaken to determine levels and exact effects of beneficial components is sera of MS patients during different phase of disease and then an appropriate protocol should be designed based on levels of special markers including both beneficial and harmful types of them is blood of MS patients.

COVID-19 can appear with different manifestations including gastrointestinal, renal, cardiac, neurological, psychiatric, ENT, dermatological, and oral symptoms. Diagnosis and management of these manifestations has a crucial role for prevention of the spread of COVID-19. In this book, for the first time, we describe different manifestations of COVID-19 and their best treatments according to the suggestions of recent published papers in the databases such as PubMed and Scopus.

Accurate pain evaluation is important to the classification of pain types. Indeed, the Core Diagnostic Criteria suggested in Dimension 1 of the ACTTION-APS Pain Taxonomy (AAPT) includes manifestations and signs of the pain disorder, and pain is, of course, the primary manifestation for all pain types. Therefore, exact and valid pain evaluation is a crucial part of the AAPT framework. Furthermore, to its diagnostic significance, pain evaluation serves different other valuable activities. First, pain evaluation provides data about the severity of the condition. In addition to its diagnostic importance, this data is important for guiding therapeutic interventions. Moreover, pain evaluation allows physicians and scientists to assess the longitudinal course of the pain disorder and to assess treatment effects. Repeated pain evaluation should inform pain treatment in much the same way as repeated blood pressure evaluation shows treatment for hypertension. Finally, pain evaluation can provide clues about the pathophysiological causes underlying the pain condition, which can improve guide treatment selection. Evaluation of the subject with chronic pain should also include evaluation of other clinically significant aspects, such as psychological and physical functioning and quality of life.

Free radicals and related compounds are commonly classified together as reactive oxygen species (ROS) to show their role in changing oxidative status within the cell. Cells commonly have different mechanisms to protect the body against damages created by free radicals. Problems are seen when synthesis of ROS is faster than their removal by the antioxidant protection mechanisms, or when the latter is impaired. This imbalance between cellular synthesis of ROS and the inability of cells to protect against them is known as oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can make cellular damage and then cell death due to the ROS oxidize cardinal cellular parts, such as lipids, proteins, and DNA. Antioxidants are exogenous (natural or synthetic) or endogenous factors play their role in several pathways including diminish of O2, scavenging ROS or their precursors, suppressing their production and binding metal ions required for catalysis of ROS production. The natural antioxidant mechanism can be classified into two major types: enzymatic (e. g., catalase, superoxide dismutase,) and nonenzymatic or the low molecular weight antioxidants (LMWA). Therefore, in this book, we aimed to shed a light on the role of antioxidants in autoimmune diseases.

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of central nervous system (CNS) which is mostly affected young adults. Although the exact etiology of multiple sclerosis is unknown, current evidences suggested that genetic, environmental, and microbial factors can play a central role in pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Pathology of multiple sclerosis is based on inflammation as T cells enter the brain via disruptions in the blood brain barrier, recognizing myelin as foreign antigen; and as a result the T cells attack myelin and start the inflammatory processes, enhancing inflammatory cytokines and antibodies. Since previous studies showed that ethanol can suppress immune system such as innate, humoral, and cellular immunity and increases the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, therefore; in this study for the first time we hypothesized maybe ethanol also have ameliorating effects on multiple sclerosis symptoms. Investigation through previous experimental studies with regard to possible immunological mechanisms that can be mediated by alcohol showed that although consumption of this substance may lead to some damages to brain tissues, ethanol can also induce immunological processes that cause reduction of inflammatory conditions and promotion of anti-inflammatory immune responses which lead to improvement of symptoms of MS patients. However, further studies will be required to establish alcohol as an immunological modifier of MS symptoms.

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent type of cancer in female healthy people worldwide. In developing regions of the world, recent years have been accompanied with an increasing incidence of breast cancer. Nowadays, this type of cancer is the second important cause of death due to malignancy in female subjects. The rate of mortality due to breast cancer has been decreasing over the years due to the development of early diagnostic techniques and more effective therapies. But despite the new improvements in cancer diagnosis and treatment, the rate of recurrence and metastasis is ever considerable. It has been hypothesized that cancer stem cells have a role in the mechanism of tumor growth and invasion. Due to their regeneration and differentiation characteristics, they are now known as the leading cause of tumor recurrence and the main risk factor of treatment resistance. Taken together, the features of cancer stem cells may have role in the improvement of more effective therapeutic methods that should make it easier to restrict cancer stem cells in order to decrease risk of tumor recurrence and metastasis in patients with breast cancer. Therefore, in this review we aimed to summarize role of stem cells in breast cancer. &nbsp