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Purpose: Low retention of school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) is a growing problem that can have drastic consequences at the school and student levels. Factors contributing to this shortage include features of the work environment, role ambiguity, low salaries, and a demanding workload with higher caseloads, which can result in limited time for paperwork and lesson planning for optimal service delivery models. The purpose of this study was to determine the current levels and predictors of occupational stress and burnout SLPs are experiencing in the school setting. Method: Using a cross-sectional survey design, 453 school-based SLPs from across the United States reported their workload manageability, career intentions, access to social support, and their stress and burnout levels. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the relation between the variables of interest and the occupational stress and burnout scores. Data were collected in September to December of 2020, at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: SLPs, on average, reported overall stress levels in the somewhat noticeable range, moderate access to social support, high levels of emotional exhaustion, low-to-moderate feelings of depersonalization, and moderate-to-high feelings of personal accomplishments. Based on a standardized burnout scale, SLPs in this sample are characterized as feeling ineffective and overextended. Results of linear regression models suggest that the perception of work manageability was the best predictor of Total Stress score, Emotional Exhaustion score, and Depersonalization score, in this sample. Conclusions: Data from this study offer the beginning steps to making an informed change for school-based SLPs' workplaces. Results indicated that SLPs in the school setting are feeling ineffective and overextended. The perception of their workload manageability was the most significant predictor for their reported stress and burnout levels. Suggestions for SLP supervisors, administrators, and other stakeholders are discussed.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which school-age children with speech sound disorder (SSD) exhibit concomitant reading difficulties and examine the extent to which phonological processing and speech production abilities are associated with increased likelihood of reading risks. Method: Data were obtained from 120 kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade children who were in receipt of school-based speech therapy services. Children were categorized as being "at risk" for reading difficulties if standardized scores on a word decoding measure were 1 "SD" or more from the mean. The selected predictors of reading risk included children's rapid automatized naming ability, phonological awareness (PA), and accuracy of speech sound production. Results: Descriptive results indicated that just over 25% of children receiving school-based speech therapy for an SSD exhibited concomitant deficits in word decoding and that those exhibiting risk at the beginning of the school year were likely to continue to be at risk at the end of the school year. Results from a hierarchical logistic regression suggested that, after accounting for children's age, general language abilities, and socioeconomic status, both PA and speech sound production abilities were significantly associated with the likelihood of being classified as at risk. Conclusions: School-age children with SSD are at increased risk for reading difficulties that are likely to persist throughout an academic year. The severity of phonological deficits, reflected by PA and speech output, may be important indicators of subsequent reading problems.

Background: Children with speech sound disorder (SSD) are at increased risk of reading difficulties due to poor phonological processing skills. However, the extent to which children with SSD demonstrate weaknesses on specific or all phonological processing tasks is not well understood. Aims: To examine the phonological processing abilities of a clinically identified sample of children with SSD, with and without reading difficulties. To determine the extent to which the proportion of children with concomitant SSD and reading difficulties exhibited weaknesses in specific areas of phonological processing, or a more general phonological deficit. Methods & Procedures: Data were obtained from 157 school-aged children (M[subscript age] = 77 months, SD = 7.01) in receipt of school-based speech therapy. Approximately 25% of the sample was identified as poor readers, based on a standardized measure of word decoding. We compared the proportion of children who scored at or below 1 SD below the mean, or the bottom 16th percentile, on measures of phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal short-term memory among those identified as poor readers and good readers. Outcomes & Results: Children with SSD demonstrated a range of phonological processing difficulties, particularly on the measure of verbal short-term memory. No specific skill differentiated groups of children with SSD with and without reading difficulties; however, those classified as poor readers on the word-decoding measure exhibited more widespread difficulties, even after controlling for language ability. Conclusions & Implications: Results support a cumulative risk model such that children with SSD and reading difficulties are likely to demonstrate generally poor phonological processing abilities.

Purpose: This tutorial is designed for speech-language pathologists who supervise speech-language pathology assistants (SLP-As) and/ or paraeducators. SLP-As and paraeducators often support young children with disabilities within early childhood settings, but do not always have access to professional development to learn and/or enhance their skill set. Practice-based coaching (PBC) provides a collaborative framework under which professionals can effectively implement instructional strategies with fidelity to support preschool children with language delays. Conclusions: In this tutorial, we will share the components of PBC including implementation materials that can be immediately utilized by SLPs. We will also share methods for embedding effective vocabulary instruction into shared book reading sessions to ensure early literacy instruction is more accessible to learners with varying educational needs. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED628257.]

Purpose: Children with speech sound disorders (SSDs) comprise a large portion of caseloads for school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs). Despite the existence of several evidence-based SSD intervention approaches, the translation from research to practice is often limited by ecological validity because of various factors unique to school settings (e.g., scheduling constraints, caseload size, child availability). The purpose of this study was to use the experience sampling method (ESM) to examine the current practices of school-based SLPs when treating children with SSDs on their caseloads. Method: SLPs (N = 106) from 42 different states working full-time in school-based K--12 settings participated in this study. At the beginning of the study, each SLP completed a one-time demographic survey about treatment practices for children with SSDs. The SLPs then participated in a series of brief surveys every day for one workweek using a specialized ESM phone application that randomly alerted participants to report on their treatment practices for children with SSDs. Results: Findings revealed that although most SLPs reported using a variety of SSD intervention approaches in a one-time survey, the majority of SLPs reported using one of three approaches in situ: the traditional articulation therapy approach, cycles, and minimal pairs. We also report a significant negative relationship between the years of experience of an SLP and the number of different approaches used. Conclusions: This study is the first to use the ESM to determine which approaches school-based SLPs use to treat children with SSDs. Findings demonstrate that SLPs have knowledge of many different SSD approaches but tend to utilize only a few in school-based settings.

Purpose: The purpose of this project was to collect practice-based evidence regarding dosage in speech sound therapy sessions in school-based settings. Dosage is the number of trials within a therapy session for any one particular child. School-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) face a variety of obstacles to service delivery, often making the implementation of evidence-based practices difficult. To that end, we were interested in exploring how therapy parameters, such as group size and session frequency were associated with dosage. Method: Using the experience sampling method, we queried school-based SLPs (n = 90) across the United States. SLPs participated via a phone application, which randomly alerted them to participate 3 times per day for 5 days. SLPs also completed a demographic questionnaire that included information regarding caseload size and job satisfaction. Results: We report results from 670 therapy sessions. Results revealed that the therapy parameter of group size was negatively related to dosage. The SLP parameter of caseload size was positively related to dosage, but this was a small association. The child parameter of comorbidity was negatively related to dosage. Conclusions: Our results support that as group size increases, children receive smaller doses of speech sound practice. Similarly, children who have a reported comorbidity received smaller doses compared to children who have an isolated speech sound disorder. We discuss implications for school-based practitioners and researchers.

Over the past two decades, there has been a persistent shortage of qualified speech-language pathologists (SLPs) across the United States. This shortage is predicted to continue, as data reported by the American Speech Language Hearing Association (ASHA) from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that there will be a 27% increase in job openings through the year 2028. In some states, the shortage has led to service provision from individuals without a background in speech-language pathology and/or without speech-language pathology certification and licensure. Speech and language services that are delivered by unqualified personnel may lead to inadequate time devoted to therapy--either too much, or too little--which is ultimately unethical, illegal, and expensive. However, there is a real issue at hand for school leadership--and that is: How to recruit, support, and retain highly qualified SLPs? In the current tutorial, we will provide evidence-based action steps for how and why to recruit, support, and retain certified and licensed SLPs. Specifically, we discuss the qualifications of the SLP, roles and responsibilities of school-based SLPs, caseload versus workload considerations, various service delivery models, and a review of SLP job satisfaction research. Throughout the tutorial, we will provide concrete and evidence-based ideas for school leadership to consider when recruiting, supporting, and retaining SLPs.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to compare word-initial and word-final consonant cluster productions in young children who speak African American English (AAE) and compare their productions to what we know about cluster productions in children who speak Mainstream American English (MAE), in order to minimize misdiagnosis of speech sound disorders. Method: Twenty-two children (ages 2;10-5;4 [years;months]) labeled pictures whose names contained at least one consonant cluster in word-initial and/or word-final position. Most two-element clusters of English were sampled, the majority in two or more words. The participants' responses were transcribed using a consensus transcription procedure. Each cluster attempt was analyzed for its similarity with MAE. Results: Percentage matching scores were significantly higher for word-initial than word-final clusters. Word-final clusters produced as singletons were significantly more common than word-final cluster substitutions. However, word-initial cluster substitutions were significantly more common than word-initial clusters produced as singletons. Word-initial cluster mismatches were consistent with markedness theory and the sonority sequencing principle (SSP). By contrast, word-final cluster mismatches were not consistent with the SSP, while the voicing generalization seen in adult speakers of AAE was evident. Conclusion: Culturally and linguistically appropriate assessment of phonological development in children who speak AAE requires an understanding of the contrastive and noncontrastive features exemplified in their consonant cluster productions.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate advocacy engagement and self-efficacy of school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and their perceptions of key issues in education and challenges to advocacy. Method: A 75-item survey was used to solicit information about advocacy-related experiences of 194 school-based SLPs. The survey included subsections on advocacy engagement, identity, training, and self-efficacy and solicited open-ended responses regarding perceived issues and hindrances. Results: Results demonstrated low percentages of respondents had received training in advocacy (15%) and participated in an event (14%). A high percentage of respondents (45%) reported feeling ill-equipped to advocate but viewed their role as advocates to be important. Overall, respondents self-rated as moderately efficacious advocates. Age and perceived advocacy importance were significant predictors of self-efficacy. Frequently cited issues in education included lack of resources and support for educators and students, teachers' rights, and mental health. Common challenges to advocacy included time constraints, lack of knowledge and support, and fear of retaliation. Conclusions: Based on reported challenges to advocacy, more research is necessary to further investigate the extent these factors influence engagement and self-efficacy. As SLPs in this study viewed their advocacy role to be important but perceived themselves to be unprepared, additional training and professional development opportunities could support the degree to which SLPs engage in advocacy and perceive themselves to be effective advocates.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to investigate the quality of Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals for students with traumatic brain injury (TBI) using an empirically based rating instrument. One hundred twenty-five IEP goals for 49 students with TBI were coded using the Revised IEP/IFSP Goals and Objective Rating Instrument (R-GORI; Notari). Using this dichotomous measure, we analyzed the quality of IEP goals across six areas: observability, measurability, functionality, generalizability, application in daily tasks, and clarity of goals. On average, students had three IEP goals (range: 1-8). The average goal quality score was 3.74 (range: 1-6). While most of the goals were measurable, only a few contained details about how the goals could be generalized beyond the specific educational or therapeutic environment. These findings highlight variability in the quality of IEP goals, which may have implications to the therapeutic environment and child outcomes.

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to explore how school-based speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') job satisfaction changed because of the COVID-19 global pandemic. We situated job satisfaction within the Conservation Resources (COR) theory. Method: We distributed a web-based survey to school-based SLPs throughout the United States. A total of 1,352 SLPs followed the link and 1,069 completed at least 90% of the survey. The survey was composed of four parts: (a) demographic information, (b) obstacles faced during COVID-19 school closures, (c) job satisfaction, and (d) self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was divided into three subscales: decision-making, instructional, and disciplinary. Results: Nearly half (48%, n = 522) of the sample reported a decline in job satisfaction following COVID-19 school closures. Using a binomial logistic regression, we found that time pressures and disciplinary self-efficacy predicted this change in job satisfaction. Individuals who reported higher disciplinary self-efficacy and more pressures on their time were 1.2 times more likely to experience a decline in job satisfaction. Number of obstacles faced, caseload size, years of experience, and the additional two self-efficacy scales were not related to this change. Conclusions: Job satisfaction is considered a malleable resource within the COR theory. Indeed, we observed a change in this resource due to the rapid shift in service delivery methods, paired with variable levels of support and resources from school districts. Our results have implications for how administration may support SLPs in and out of times of acute crises.

The purpose of this study was to examine how school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) maintained clinical services via teletherapy during the COVID-19 pandemic closures. School-based SLPs in the United States were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey. Questions relevant to this study gathered information regarding a) provision of teletherapy following COVID-19 school closures, b) the types of technologies used to deliver teletherapy and supports offered from school districts, and c) challenges to providing consistent therapy. Descriptive results indicate that over 60% of responding SLPs with complete data (n = 1109) provided teletherapy to all or some students on their caseloads. A variety of virtual methods were used, but Zoom and Google hangouts were the most commonly used technologies. Although some SLPs received training to deliver teletherapy (16%), many received no support from their district to maintain service provision (25%). The most frequently noted barriers to providing therapy included poor attendance of online therapy sessions and parenting their own children simultaneously. School-based SLPs were largely successful in maintaining speech-language therapy services to children on their caseloads. Information regarding the types of technologies used and common challenges can inform future teletherapy training for SLPs should future school closures occur.

Background: Nonword repetition (NWR) is a common phonological processing task that is reported to tap into many cognitive, perceptual, and motor processes. For this reason, NWR is often used in assessment batteries to aid in verifying the presence of a reading or language disorder. Aims: To examine the extent to which child- and item-level factors predict the probability of a correct response on a non-word repetition (NWR) task in a sample of children with persistent speech sound disorders (P-SSDs) compared with their typically developing peers. Methods & Procedures: A total of 40 American-English-speaking children were tested on an NWR task for which the stimuli were manipulated for phonological neighbourhood density and list length. Additional measures of vocabulary and word reading were also administered. Outcomes & Results: Children who were typically developing were 1.82 times more likely than children with P-SSD to respond correctly. The item-level factor of phonological neighbourhood density influenced performance, but only for the P-SSD group, and only at certain list lengths. Vocabulary and word-reading ability also influenced NWR task performance. Conclusions & Implications: Children with P-SSD present as a complex and heterogeneous group. Multiple factors contribute to their ability to perform phonological tasks such as NWR. As such, attention to the item-level factors in screenings and assessments is necessary to ensure that appropriate decisions are made regarding diagnosis and subsequent treatment.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the features of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) for a cohort of students with traumatic brain injury (TBI) to help elucidate current special education practices for students with TBI. Method: We obtained permission from administrators of a local school district of 41,000 students in a Midwestern state to review de-identified IEP records of students verified with TBI. We examined demographic information (i.e., cause and age at time of injury), IEP services and intensity, IEP goal categories, and previous verification status. Results: Descriptive results support that intervention services were more intense for students with TBI with greater lengths of time postinjury. Target behaviors within goals were more often related to math and reading than to the cognitive processes that govern these skills, such as attention, memory, and executive functioning. Finally, more than a third of our sample had been verified with a disability and were receiving special education services via an IEP prior to their TBI. Conclusions: This work represents an important first step in understanding the special education services for students with TBI. Future research should explore interventions that are ecologically valid for school-based settings and are developed to address the idiosyncratic deficits of students with TBI, particularly interventions that focus on the underlying cognitive processes experienced by these students.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which child- and therapy-level factors contribute to gains in speech sound production accuracy for children with speech sound disorders in receipt of school-based services. Method: Data were obtained from 126 kindergarten and first- and second-grade children currently in receipt of speech therapy services in their public school setting. Pretest and posttest measures of spontaneous speech production and language ability were collected at the beginning and end of one academic year. Using a spontaneous speech sample, percentage of consonants correct (PCC) was calculated for each child; a gain score was computed by subtracting the pretest PCC score from the posttest PCC score. The children's speech-language pathologist completed weekly therapy logs during business-as-usual therapy, indicating the frequency, duration, and group composition of services throughout the school year. Results: Results supported that gain in PCC from pretest to posttest was predicted by several child- and therapy-level variables. Children's initial speech sound severity was negatively related to gains in PCC. Our results also supported that the total number of therapy sessions received in a year was positively predictive of PCC gain. Interestingly, the number of individual therapy sessions was negatively associated with PCC gain. Conclusion: Several malleable therapy factors contribute to gains in speech sound accuracy for children with speech sound disorders. Speech-language pathologists should consider how these factors may be manipulated to best tailor treatment to the individual needs of the children on their caseloads.

Purpose: School-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) are responsible for providing services to about 55% of students with disabilities in the school setting across the nation. A shortage of qualified school-based SLPs continues to persist in the United States. Research has aimed to identify factors that lead to diminished career intentions, occupational stress, and ultimately, job burnout. However, there is a dearth of literature regarding the prevention of job burnout in the school setting. In this tutorial, we provide school-based SLPs with strategies that aim to reduce and prevent burnout symptoms related to occupational stress and satisfaction. We (a) define and describe burnout, (b) discuss the possible stressors and job-related challenges that are within SLPs' control of change, (c) provide evidence-based strategies that may alleviate occupational stress related to workload factors before and after burnout has occurred, and (d) provide examples of ways to advocate within the profession. Conclusions: SLPs are encouraged to make minor adjustments in their work settings. Suggested strategies include recognizing overwhelm, incorporating broader and workload-specific changes to daily routines, and engaging in advocacy efforts. Two resources, one for evaluation and another for consolidating information about a caseload, are provided.

More than half of U.S. speech-language pathologists (SLPs) currently practice in the school setting and 92.6% of SLPs who work in schools provide services focused on children's speech sound production (articulation and/or phonology). This article describes evaluation and eligibility requirements for children with speech sound disorders in the United States focusing on four sources of information: (1) federal requirements, specifically the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); (2) state and local requirements and guidance; (3) other sources of guidance (e.g., from professional associations); and (4) research. To be eligible to receive services under the IDEA, three conditions must be met: (1) the student has an impairment; (2) that impairment results in an educational impact; and (3) the student requires specially designed instruction to make progress. Civil rights and diversity (cultural, linguistic, and gender) within these contexts also are considered. Case examples are provided to highlight eligibility criteria and to guide SLP practice. The information and examples provided in this article will enable SLPs in the United States to navigate IDEA evaluation and eligibility requirements to ensure children with speech sound disorders who are eligible under the IDEA receive appropriate services.

Purpose: Situated within the conservation of resources theory, this study sought to understand how resources such as self-efficacy, job satisfaction, caseload size, and geographic location influence the number of data sources used by school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) to determine eligibility. Method: Using a cross-sectional descriptive design, 665 school-based SLPs from the United States reported professional demographics, workload, and assessment/eligibility characteristics, as well as levels of job satisfaction and self-efficacy. Multiple regression was used to examine the effects of self-efficacy, job satisfaction, caseload size, and geographic location on the number of data sources used in eligibility decision making and to examine the effects of caseload size and job satisfaction resources on SLP self-efficacy. Results: SLPs, on average, reported using 7.98 data sources to support eligibility determinations. Standardized tests, conversation samples, and review of records were most used, and literacy assessments were used least. Results of multiple regression models indicate that SLPs with higher self-efficacy scores reported using significantly more data sources and that SLPs with higher job satisfaction indicated significantly higher self-efficacy. Conclusions: This study affirms self-efficacy as a strong resource for school-based SLPs and that it is, in fact, related to the number of data sources used in eligibility decisions. Limited literacy assessment was reported, despite the SLP's critical role in an educational setting. Job satisfaction as a predictor of self-efficacy and self-efficacy, in turn, as a predictor of data sources underscore the need for SLPs to advocate for work conditions that support their work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Children with dyslexia have speech production deficits in a variety of spoken language contexts. In this article, we discuss the nature of speech production errors in children with dyslexia, including those who have a history of speech sound disorder and those who do not, to familiarize speech-language pathologists with speech production-specific risk factors that may help predict or identify dyslexia in young children. Method: In this tutorial, we discuss the role of a phonological deficit in children with dyslexia and how this may manifest as speech production errors, sometimes in conjunction with a speech sound disorder but sometimes not. We also briefly review other factors outside the realm of phonology that may alert the speech-language pathologist to possible dyslexia. Results: Speech-language pathologists possess unique knowledge that directly contributes to the identification and remediation of children with dyslexia. We present several clinical recommendations related to speech production deficits in children with dyslexia. We also review what is known about how and when children with speech sound disorder are most at risk for dyslexia. Conclusion: Speech-language pathologists have a unique opportunity to assist in the identification of young children who are at risk for dyslexia.

Purpose: Speech sound disorders (SSDs) can have a negative impact on literacy development, social-emotional well-being, and participation across the life span. Despite this, many public schools do not provide appropriate or timely services to this population of children. In large part, this is a result of variation in how state and local agencies interpret "educational performance" as outlined within the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. The purpose of this study was to explore which educational performance factors speech-language pathologists (SLPs) consider when determining eligibility for children with SSDs. Method: This study surveyed public school SLPs to investigate how educational performance is interpreted for children with SSDs. Data from 575 SLPs across the United States are included. Results: Results supported variability in interpretation of educational performance within a nationwide sample of SLPs. Specifically, SLPs appear to consider educational performance as multidimensional. We also found within-state and between-states variability, indicating ambiguity in interpreting federal mandates. Finally, caseload size and number of years of experience were significantly related to which educational performance factors SLPs chose. Conclusion: There is significant variability across the United States with respect to factors considered part of educational performance for children with SSD. This variability reflects the general quality and specificity of guidelines and/or special education code published by individual states. Clinical and legislative recommendations are included.

Purpose: Dyslexia, a neurobiological phonological processing deficit, can be identified early; however, there is a substantial variation between and within states regarding who makes this diagnosis and when. Dyslexia evaluations are often challenging to obtain and very expensive for families who need to seek them outside of the school setting. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of developing a free dyslexia diagnostic team within our university speech and hearing clinic. Method: We developed a team of academic and clinical faculty and students at the doctoral, master's, and undergraduate levels. We developed a 6-hr (1 day) testing battery and recruited families via social media. Children needed to be between the ages of 8 and 11 years and reported to have classroom difficulty related to word reading and/or spelling. Results: We were able to create a strong and successful team, testing battery, and recruitment plan. Master's students were interested in the opportunity and families drove between 246 and 453 miles to participate. We allocated enough time in our summer schedule for all parties. However, we have concerns about the sustainability of this program, especially during the academic year. Conclusions: Broadly, this dyslexia diagnostic team is a feasible endeavor. There was internal and external community interest. We identified small and solvable barriers related to debriefing and test interpretation. We also identified larger issues related to funding, faculty availability, and student support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Print knowledge is a powerful predictor of later reading abilities, which are crucial to children's academic success. Children with speech sound disorders (SSDs) are at risk for literacy difficulties. Speech sound therapy is an opportune time to address not only speech sound production but also the connections between speech sounds and their associated letters and letter patterns. This tutorial aims to provide a rich source of evidence to support the use of print and print-referencing in speech sound therapy sessions. We include feasible suggestions for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) to facilitate print-rich experiences for children with SSDs. Incorporating orthography into therapy sessions, through activities such as shared book reading, allows SLPs to address speech sound errors while supporting children's literacy development. Conclusions: This tutorial provides an overview of the risk of literacy deficits in children with SSDs and describes the theoretical underpinnings of why incorporating print is a powerful learning tool. We expand on the research behind print referencing in preschool classrooms. Finally, we provide detailed examples, including book lists and therapy ideas for a variety of ages, to help SLPs add print referencing to their therapy toolkit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Practitioners, researchers, and policymakers (i.e., stakeholders) have vested interests in children's language growth yet currently do not have empirically driven methods for measuring such outcomes. The present study established language benchmarks for children with typically developing language (TDL) and children with language impairment (LI) from 3 to 9 years of age. Method: Effect sizes for grammar, vocabulary, and overall language were calculated for children with TDL (n = 20,018) using raw score means and standard deviations from 8 norm-referenced measures of language. Effect sizes for children with LI were calculated using fall and spring norm-referenced language measures for 497 children with LI receiving business-as-usual therapy in the public schools. Results: Considerable variability was found in expected change across both samples of children over time, with preschoolers exhibiting larger effect sizes (d = 0.82 and 0.70, respectively) compared with school-age children (d = 0.49 and 0.55, respectively). Conclusions: This study provides a first step toward establishing empirically based language benchmarks for children. These data offer stakeholders an initial tool for setting goals based on expected growth (practitioners), making informed decisions on language-based curricula (policymakers), and measuring effectiveness of intervention research (researchers).

Background: Numerous studies suggest a positive relationship between the home literacy environment (HLE) and children's language and literacy skills, yet very little research has focused on the HLE of children with language impairment (LI). Children with LI are at risk for reading difficulties; thus, understanding the nature and frequency of their home literacy interactions is warranted. Aims: To identify unique HLE profiles within a large sample of children with LI, and to determine relevant caregiver- and child-specific factors that predict children's profile membership. Methods & Procedures: Participants were 195 kindergarten and first-grade children with LI who were receiving school-based language therapy. Caregivers completed a comprehensive questionnaire regarding their child's HLE, and the extent to which their child engaged in shared book reading, were taught about letters, initiated or asked to be read to, and chose to read independently. Caregivers also answered questions regarding the highest level of maternal education, caregiver history of reading difficulties, and caregiver reading habits. Children completed a language and literacy battery in the fall of their academic year. Outcomes & Results: Latent profile analyses indicated a three-profile solution, representing high, average and low frequency of the selected HLE indicators. Multinomial regression further revealed that caregivers' own reading habits influenced children's profile membership, as did child age and language abilities. Conclusions & Implications: These results highlight the considerable variability in the frequency of home literacy interactions of children with LI. Future work examining relations between familial reading practices and literacy outcomes for children with LI is warranted.

This longitudinal study investigated profiles of lexical quality domains in preschool children and the extent to which profile membership predicted reading comprehension in first grade. A latent profile analysis was conducted to classify 420 preschool children on lexical quality domains, including orthography, phonology, morphosyntax, and vocabulary. Regression analysis was used to determine whether profile membership was associated with first grade outcomes across reading comprehension and its components (i.e., listening comprehension and word recognition). Results revealed five profiles of lexical quality which were predictive of all three outcomes in first grade. Children in low lexical quality profiles performed more poorly on the outcome measures than children in the higher lexical quality profiles. Additionally, profile membership did differentially predict later reading outcomes. These results suggest that lexical quality profiles are associated with reading and therefore may offer a means of early identification of children who are susceptible to future reading difficulties.

Purpose: The present study focused on the identification and stability of language and literacy profiles of primary school children receiving school-based language therapy over the course of one academic year. Method: Participants included 272 early elementary school-age children (144 boys, 128 girls) who had been clinically identified as having a language impairment. A latent profile analysis was used to identify distinct profiles on the basis of a battery of language and literacy assessments in the fall and spring of the academic year. Results: Four profiles were identified in both fall and spring that could be best described as representing high, average, and low overall abilities. Two average groups were identified that differentiated according to phonological awareness abilities. Children's profile membership was variable from fall to spring with nearly 60% of children shifting into a higher profile. The results of t tests comparing children who shifted into higher profiles from those who remained stable in profile membership revealed group differences regarding language severity, socio-economic status, and proportion of therapy sessions received in the classroom. Conclusion: These results provide further evidence regarding the heterogeneity of children with language impairment served in the public schools, indicating that differences may be best conceptualized along a continuum of severity.

This study examined the effects of practice-based coaching with scripted supports designed to support paraeducators and speech-language pathology assistants (SLP-As) as they implement evidence-based shared book reading strategies with preschoolers with language delays. A single-case, multiple baseline across behaviors was employed. Five U.S. educators (three SLP-As and two paraeducators) participated in the study. The primary dependent variable was percentage of strategies correctly implemented; the secondary dependent variable was expressive and receptive vocabulary. Results demonstrate that all five educators were able to successfully implement the strategies with high and consistent levels of fidelity during the intervention and maintained similar levels of fidelity even after coaching and scripted supports were faded or removed. All five preschool participants showed gains in both expressive and receptive vocabulary. Social validity results support the feasibility and usefulness of the intervention. Implications for research and practice are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]