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Floods can severely disrupt agricultural activities. When these activities are part of production chains, domino effects can occur. We use agent-based modeling to simulate the production dynamics of a French cooperative winery as an example of a production chain, adopting a dual individual-collective perspective. The cash-flow analysis shows that there are nonexplicit mechanisms in the cooperative organization that allow the propagation of flood impacts throughout the chain and influence the winegrowers' ability to cope, thus threatening the continuity of the winegrowers' activity and the cooperative winery itself.

Social capital is critical for economic development, especially in settings where institutions are absent or weak (Cardenas & Carpenter, 2008). Social capital, defined as "the social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from (individuals)" (Putnam, 2000), is a theoretical construct that cannot be measured directly in its entirety, but rather its various elementary components need to be assessed. Recent literature has focused on two main components: structural and cognitive. The structural component encompasses roles, rules, procedures, and social networks, while the cognitive component includes pro-social attitudes such as trust, truthfulness, trustworthiness, reciprocity, and willingness to contribute to public goods. These two components are interconnected and mutually reinforcing, making it difficult to disentangle them. (Krishna, 2007; Avdeenko and Gilligan, 2015; Pisani, 2017; Uphoff and Wijayaratna, 2000). Social capital is beneficial for economic and community development as it allows for information sharing, pooling of resources, reduction of transaction costs and facilitate informal contracts (Cameron et al., 2015; Heß et al., 2021; Peralta & Shupp, 2017). More generally, communities with high social capital are better suited for collective action which in turn positively affects their economic outcomes. The development community has increasingly turned to community-driven development (CDD), a bottom-up approach in which the targeted population becomes the primary driver of change. Such initiatives both rely on existing social capital and aim to enhance it (Avdeenko & Gilligan, 2015; Ban et al., 2020; Mansuri, 2004). The success of CDD is closely linked to pre-existing levels of trust, trustworthiness, as well as community interactions (Peralta & Shupp, 2017). Trust and trustworthiness are intrinsic values that depend on individual preferences, making it challenging for external actors to build social capital. However, develo

Rivalry in extractive CPR, like groundwater, implies that agents extract as muchas they need, and even more if they fear that others behave the same way (Gardner et al., 1990 ; Walker et al., 1990 and 2000), leading to the 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin, 1968). Users depleting a groundwater CPR typically face two types of appropriation externalities (Gardner et al., 1997): a static externality, whereby individuals' extraction costs at any given date are affected by the total level of extraction at that date, and a dynamic externality, whereby the extraction cost any later date is affected by past cumulative extractions. Groundwater is a very important source of irrigation water, the latter representing more than 70% of the total water uses on earth (FAO, 2022). In North Africa half of the current groundwater water withdrawals exceed natural rates of water recharge (Mayaux et al., 2022). Maghreb Countries are highly dependent on their groundwater resources for their agricultural development. The public policies of the last decades triggered radical changes in newly irrigated areas (extension areas) and in traditional oases (Kadiri et al., 2022). This resulted in a quick intensification of local agriculture, like in Tunisia, where oases are currently facing sustainability concerns due to "uncontrolled expansion of irrigated areas, overexploitation of groundwater resources, and soil degradation" (Ghazouani et al., 2009 ; Mekki et al., 2013). In Tunisia, the Complex terminal aquifer in Kebili is under the threat of overexploitation, as its exploitation leads to a 1 meter lowering of the watertable/year. This is due to the combination of a very low level of water recharge and high level of water use for irrigation mainly ('Irigui et al., 2021). (French acronym for Agricultural Development Croups), which coexist with newly settled extension farmers. Many GDA farmers have also plots in the extensions, where, like the extension farmers they dig illicit private boreholes t

This study uses an online laboratory experiment and a post-experimental survey to test whether the Mastercard Foundation (MCF) scholarship programme causally influences the creation of cognitive social capital among University of Pretoria recipients. Cognitive social capital, which is based on commonly shared norms among subjects, leads to honest and cooperative behaviour. It is necessary for ease of information flow, a reduction in transaction costs, and allowing communities to deal with social dilemmas like common-pool resource management. The study used incentivised economic experiments on randomly selected subjects drawn from a control group (non-MCF students) and a treated group (MCF students). The experimental results from the two groups were compared to check the differences in terms of levels of trust, reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination. Our results show that the scholarship programme has a significant impact only on levels of in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination. The post-experimental survey showed that MCF and non-MCF subjects were similar in terms of stated pro-social behaviour perceptions and in-group social capital creation.

In the absence of regulation, common pool resources (CPR) are frequently over-exploited (Hardin, 1968; Ostrom, 1990). However, Yao et al. (2022) showed that the Approval Mechanism (AM) allows preventing the undesirable social outcome of the "tragedy of the commons" in two-player CPR games. The AM was first proposed by Masuda et al. (2014) and Saijo et al. (2015) as an efficient mechanism to avoid the social dilemma of under-provision in two-player public goods games. The AM involves a two-stage game. In the case of a CPR game, in stage 1, each player proposes an individual extraction level; in stage 2 players approve/disapprove the proposed extraction vector. In case of disapproval, an endogenously fixed amount of extraction called "disapproval benchmark" (DB) is implemented. Extending the AM to more than two players is not straightforward. Yao et al. (2022) investigated the case of a three-player CPR game and found that the mechanism sometimes fails. Failures seem to be related to the second stage approval/disapproval decisions, in particular under the majority approval rule. It is therefore useful to explore other variants of the AM, either by investigating alternative voting rules or alternative disapproval benchmark rules. In this paper we propose a variant in which, in case of disapproval, one of the players, the delegate, is randomly selected to choose authoritatively a uniform extraction level for all players, putting the disapproval arbitration at an endogenous level. Designation of delegates among group's members being common in real life CPR management institutions, such as water user associations (WUA). We design an experiment based on a three-player CPR game. We assess the effectiveness of the AM with a delegate in case of disapproval, both under the unanimity and the majority approval rules. The delegate has the power to choose the uniform extraction level, between the minimum and the maximum first stage proposals. Backwards elimination of weakly domina

Groundwater resources are a crucial driver of development. Since the 1970s, the expansion of irrigated land on the margins of the existing 'traditional' oases has been encouraged by the Tunisian authorities to enhance local development. As a result, oases in Southern Tunisia are currently facing sustainability concerns. This situation requires alternative water management approaches, in which local actors collaborate and contribute to the design of new rules. To understand Tunisian oasis farmers' perceptions of water rules and public organisations, in 2021, we conducted an online survey in Jemna, an oasis in the Kebili region in Southern Tunisia. The picture that emerged from the online survey is that farmers in extension areas have distinctive characteristics but also similarities with farmers in the traditional oasis. Both types of farmers mainly cultivate date palm (monoculture), and, like farmers in the extensions, many farmers in the traditional oasis have a private borehole. All farmers in the Jemna oasis clearly perceive the limited availability and poor quality of the groundwater resource. However, they do not believe these problems cause conflict among farmers. They consider that, to solve possible conflicts and to ensure better water management in the oasis, collaboration among farmers is more effective than changes to rules issued by existing organisations. These preliminary results, if confirmed, can have important policy implications, as the farmers' perceptions of water rules and organisations, as well as farmers' willingness to collaborate, are crucial for a possible new approach to water management in the oasis.

This report reviews the main global trends in land and water uses, policies and investments that have taken place over the last decade and identifies the institutional arrangements that have been the most conducive to sustainable and equitable use of these resources. The report focuses particularly on family farmers, who have limited access to key resources (land, water, credit and infrastructure). It pays special attention to their common challenges and needs, but also to their diverse conditions. It provides evidence-based information on the institutional conditions needed to ensure inclusive land and water programmes, and to upscale such programmes at local levels. It is based on a systematic review of official documents and academic papers and on detailed case studies, often grounded in the authors' own significant knowledge. The report is organized in three main parts. The first section begins with a review of the main global trends affecting land and water uses over the last decade, and links them to the public policies and types of private investment that encouraged such trends. The main structural drivers of growing pressures on water resources and land availability are discussed, including population growth, diet changes, climate change, urbanization and biofuel development. The report discusses the direct effects of these drivers, including water scarcity, increased global competition for land use and the degradation of existing resources, on land and water availability. It then examines the main types of private investments and public policies that drive these trends: large-scale land acquisition, reassertion of large-scale infrastructure programmes for surface water irrigation, public subsidies and private initiatives that stimulate access to groundwater. The second section of the report focuses on the impacts of global changes, policies and investments on farmers' livelihoods and water use. It reviews the numerous beneficial impacts of irrigation on pov

This working paper presents and discusses the approaches and methods used by the PRECOS Team of the G-Eau research unit to analyse practices, social representations and behaviours of socio-hydro systems' actors. Four groups of methods are presented: 1) surveys, interviews, and focus groups, 2) stated preferences, 3) experimental economics, 4) hybrid methods. A wide literature review is provided for each group of methods, facilitating a better understanding of the tools proposed. Through examples and concrete applications, the methods are compared and their advantages and limitations discussed. The paper concludes that there is no ideal method for the analysis of actors' practices, social representations and behaviours in socio-hydro systems, and suggests moving in the direction of transversality and interdisciplinarity, by adapting the existing methods to the specificities of the socio-hydro systems and producing hybrid methods that benefit from the complementarity of the original methods.