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Purpose: The purpose of this study was to carry out a systematic review of intervention programs that have addressed affective learning outcomes within physical education and to explore pedagogical practices in alignment with teaching, lesson content, and learning outcomes. Method: The literature search was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Included were 26 peer-reviewed pedagogical studies of physical education programs that addressed affective outcomes and reported fidelity of implementation. Results and Discussion: Affective outcomes were grouped into four themes: motivation, emotional responses, self-concept, and resilience. The findings showed that offering choice, encouraging peer feedback, asking deductive questions, focusing on personal improvement, and differentiating are effective teaching strategies that were widely used to support affective learning in children and adolescents. This review highlights the importance of fidelity of implementation to understand how intervention programs are delivered.

In Part I of this series I, we looked back at the 20thcentury and re-examined the history of Motor Development research described in Clark & Whitall’s 1989 paper “What is Motor Development? The Lessons of History”. We now move to the 21stcentury, where the trajectories of developmental research have evolved in focus, branched in scope, and diverged into three new areas. These have progressed to be independent research areas, co-existing in time. We posit that the research focus on Dynamical Systems at the end of the 20thcentury has evolved into a Developmental Systems approach in the 21stcentury. Additionally, the focus on brain imaging and the neural basis of movement have resulted in a new approach, which we entitled Developmental Motor Neuroscience. Finally, as the world-wide obesity epidemic identified in the 1990s threatened to become a public health crisis, researchers in the field responded by examining the role of motor development in physical activity and health-related outcomes; we refer to this research area as the Developmental Health approach. The glue that holds these research areas together is their focus on movement behavior as it changes across the lifespan.

Motor development research has had a rich history over the 20th century with a wide array of scientists contributing to a broad and deep body of literature. Just like the process of development, progress within the field has been non-linear, with rapid periods of growth occurring after the publication of key research articles that changed how we conceptualized and explored motor development. These publications provided new ways to consider developmental issues and, as a result, ignited change in our theoretical and empirical approaches within the field of motor development and the broader field of developmental psychology. In this paper, we outline and discuss six pioneering studies that we consider significant in their impact and in the field’s evolution, in order of publication: Halverson, 1931; Wild, 1938; Gibson & Walk, 1960; Connolly, Brown, & Bassett, 1968; Thelen & Fisher, 1982; Thelen & Ulrich, 1991. We have limited this review to empirical papers only. Together, they offer insight into what motor development research is, where it came from, why it matters, and what it has achieved.

The United Kingdom and Ireland have a well-established research base in motor competence (MC) research, ranging from reporting and monitoring levels of MC, developing assessment tools for MC, providing innovative curriculum and intervention design to support learning and development, as well as providing advocacy for particular groups, such as those with motor impairments. This expert statement, on behalf of the International Motor Development Research Consortium, draws together what is currently known about levels of MC in the United Kingdom and Ireland as well as current approaches to intervention in both countries. Subsequently presented are recommendations for researchers and practitioners to advance the field of MC for the benefit of children and youth in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and worldwide.

Background: The dynamic nature of physical education (PE) requires careful consideration of lesson planning and delivery in order to promote health and wellbeing and to achieve various learning goals. One such goal is promoting personal and social development to support students to value and lead a healthy and active lifestyle, especially during transition into adolescence. In order to design learning environments that support students' engagement in PE, it is important to understand how outcomes such as motor competence (MC) influence motivation for PE. There are two approaches to understand MC, actual and perceived MC, and both have implications for healthy lifestyles in childhood and adolescence. Therefore, this study examined associations of actual and perceived MC with young adolescents' motivation for PE. Method: A sample of 236 students 11–14 years of age (M = 13.01, SD =.72) participated in the study. Assessments included actual MC (Körperkoordinations test for Kinder; KTK), perceived MC (self-administered form of the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence; PMSC) and motivation for PE (Perceived Locus of Causality Scale; PLOC). Polynomial regression with Response Surface Analyses were conducted to examine the influence of actual and perceived MC on motivation for PE. Findings: The results showed weak-to-moderate positive associations of actual and perceived MC with students' motivation for PE. Perceived MC explained about 12% of the variance of student's self-determined motivation towards PE. This effect was larger in students with lower levels of perceived MC compared to students with higher levels of perceived MC. Discussion: Taking into account that both actual and perceived MC are synergistically related but only perceived MC explains self-determined motivation, our results suggest that perceived MC is an important factor to consider when attempting to promote an active and healthy lifestyle. Using the developmental model of motor competence [Stodden et al. 2008. "A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An Emergent Relationship." Quest 60 (2): 290–306] and self-determination theory [Deci and Ryan 2000. "The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior." Psychological Inquiry 11 (4): 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01], we discuss the findings in relation to the importance of considering perceived MC as an explicit outcome in the PE curriculum. Conclusion: During early adolescence, PE programs should not only focus on teaching movement skills but also fostering perceived MC in order to promote motivation for PE, especially among students with lower levels of self-perception. For this, pedagogical approaches such as need supportive teaching derived from self-determination theory can be used to help students become competent, confident and motivated movers.

Purpose Motor assessments generally produce a single motor competence score based on the general motor ability hypothesis, which states that motor competence is a one-dimensional trait underlying a wide range of motor skills. Yet, it is unclear whether the general motor ability hypothesis holds true in middle childhood, which is marked by an increased participation in sports and other types of physical activity. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the structure of motor competence in middle childhood using a test battery with a large item set. Method A cross-sectional design was used to collect motor competence data of 2538 children aged 6-11 years. Participants completed the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition Short Form (BOT-2 SF), which consists of 14 skill items and covers different motor domains. In accordance with the BOT-2 SF manual, point scores were computed for each item. Polytomous Rasch analyses (ie, general partial credit model) were carried out to investigate the construct of motor competence. Results Rasch analyses revealed different items with unordered threshold parameters, due to ceiling effects. However, after empirically rescaling the category width for each item, follow-up analyses revealed a one-dimensional structure with 12 items. Conclusion The study provides some evidence of a one-dimensional construct (ie, motor competence) underlying motor assessment in middle childhood. Continued efforts should be made to ensure that valid composite scores are used in motor assessment and to better understand the development of motor competence across childhood and into adolescence and adulthood.

The aim of this study was (1) to examine the long-term effectiveness of the "Multimove for Kids" program, a 30-week fundamental motor skill intervention (approximately 1 hour per week) for typically developing children between 3 and 8 years, and (2) to determine the influence of participation in organized sports on motor competence (MC) six years after the intervention. Of the 992 children who took part in the "Multimove" program, 399 (intervention group: N = 228, control group: N = 171) were tested again at 6-year follow-up. MC was measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition. To examine the long-term impact of "Multimove" on MC, and the effect of participation in organized sports a latent growth curve analysis was conducted. After the 30-week intervention, the intervention group outperformed the control group (beta = 5.57, P < .001). However, when the entire study period, including the 6-year follow-up, was considered, the intervention group made less progress in MC than the control group (beta = -0.41, P < .05). Looking at the engagement in organized sports, it was found that years of experience before the intervention had no significant influence on the evolution of MC over time, whereas a positive effect was observed for children's average sports participation (h/week) during the 6-year retention period (beta = 0.14, P < .001). Finally, children practicing predominantly object control-oriented sports during retention obtained slightly better MC scores at follow-up (beta = 0.01, P < .01). The "Multimove" intervention does not have a long-term effect on the development of MC. However, participation in organized sports has a positive influence on MC evolution over time.

The aim of this special issue in Scandinavian Journal of Science & Medicine in Sports was to provide an update of research examining motor competence and physical fitness in childhood and adolescence from a longitudinal perspective. Motor competence and physical fitness play an important role in children and adolescents' overall health and growth. Motor competence refers to an individual's degree of proficiency in performing various motor skills and is underpinned by coordination and control. Developing adequate levels of competence in fundamental motor/movement skills is critical for all children as they form the foundation for more complex skills used in games, sports and other types of physical activities across the lifespan. Physical fitness refers to an individual's capacity to perform physical activity and includes components such as cardiorespiratory fitness, musculoskeletal fitness (i.e., muscular endurance and strength), and flexibility. Motor competence and physical fitness are correlated in young people.

This study aimed (1) to identify profiles in children based on actual motor competence (AMC), perceived motor competence (PMC), and organized sports participation (OSP), and (2) to examine differences among these profiles in weight status as well as autonomous motivation towards sports. Children’s (N = 206, 112 boys, Mage = 10.83 ± 0.92 years) AMC, PMC, OSP, weight status, and autonomous motivation towards sports were measured using validated assessment tools. Cluster analyses identified three profiles with completely convergent levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP and three profiles with partially convergent levels. Children in the convergent profiles with average to high levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP had the most optimal profile, as they combined a healthier weight status with elevated levels of autonomous motivation, while the opposite was true for children with low levels on all three cluster-variables. Partially convergent profiles showed that AMC and PMC appear crucial for weight status, as profiles with relatively low levels of AMC and PMC had the highest weight status, independent of their OSP levels. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of promoting AMC, PMC, and OSP simultaneously to help children in achieving a healthy weight status and being autonomously motivated towards OSP.

This study aimed to (1) investigate differences in actual motor competence (AMC) and cardiorespiratory fitness among children who are (not) involved in organized sports, and (2) examine to what extent different aspects of organized sports participation (OSP) (i.e., single-sports versus multi-sports, average weekly amount of OSP, type and number of sports being practiced across childhood) influences AMC, cardiorespiratory fitness, perceived motor competence (PMC) and autonomous motivation toward sports. Participants’ (N = 346; 172 boys; 9.77 ± 1.04 years) AMC, cardiorespiratory fitness, PMC, autonomous motivation and OSP were measured using validated assessment tools. A two-way MANCOVA was used to examine differences in AMC and cardiorespiratory fitness between children not involved in organized sports (n = 81) and the sporting subsample (n = 265) according to sex, while controlling for age. The sporting subsample outperformed the children not involved in organized sports regarding AMC and cardiorespiratory fitness (p < 0.001). No sex differences in AMC were found (p = 0.129), whereas boys demonstrated better cardiorespiratory fitness than girls (p < 0.001). Within the sporting subsample, four separate hierarchical multiple regression models—including age and sex as covariates—were conducted to examine to what extent different aspects of OSP influence the four different outcomes mentioned above. With respect to AMC, only type of sports (i.e., locomotor-oriented vs. object control-oriented) was an important aspect of OSP (p < 0.001), and uniquely explained 8.5% of the variation in AMC. A predominant involvement in object control-oriented sports was associated with higher AMC levels. The full model accounted for 17.4% of the variance in AMC (p < 0.001). Regarding cardiorespiratory fitness and PMC, the only important OSP aspect was single-sports vs multi-sports participation (p < 0.041 and p = 0.009, respectively), uniquely explaining 3.2% and 6.4% of the variation in cardiorespiratory fitness and PMC, respectively. Multi-sports participation was associated with higher levels of both outcomes compared to single-sports participation. The full model accounted for 29.2% of the variance in cardiorespiratory fitness (p < 0.001) and 15.8% in PMC (p = 0.012). With respect to autonomous motivation toward sports, the full model to explain variance was not significant (p = 0.356). The current findings indicate that OSP is an important strategy to support children’s health and development. Moreover, participation in multi-sports and specifically object control-oriented sports are particularly beneficial to promote health-related outcomes such as cardiorespiratory fitness and to enhance PMC.

BACKGROUND: An understanding of how motor skill performance levels relate to energy expenditure (EE) is an important, yet relatively unexplored topic that may better inform physical activity interventions. AIM: This study examined the impact of motor competence (MC) on EE during the performance of object control skills in children and young adults. METHOD: Forty-two children (Mage 8.1 years) and 40 young adults (Mage = 23.4 years) completed sessions of throwing and kicking at varying intensity intervals. Polynomial regressions with response surface analysis were conducted to analyze the impact of process- and product-oriented MC levels on EE. RESULTS: Moderate positive associations among process-oriented motor competence levels and EE were demonstrated in all trial interval conditions with stronger associations shown for shorter trial intervals. CONCLUSION: Individuals’ movement quality (process) demonstrated greater associations with EE than performance product (speed), especially with higher intensity skill practice. These results provide additional evidence of the positive impact that MC has on the health benefits of physical activity, specifically during participation in activities that inherently require repeated performance of object control skills.

Competence in fundamental motor skills (FMS) facilitates physical activity participation and is important for children’s holistic development. This study aimed to systematically review the FMS levels of children worldwide, using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, studies were identified from searches across 7 databases. Studies were required to: (i) include typically developing children (3–10 years), (ii) be published in English, (iii) have been published between 2004 and 2019 and, (iv) report ≥1 TGMD-2 outcome scores. Extracted data were evaluated based on importance of determinants, strength of evidence, and methodological quality. Data from 64 articles were included. Weighted mean (and standard deviation) scores were calculated for each FMS outcome score. Analyses revealed FMS competence increases across age during childhood, with greater proficiency in locomotor skills than object control skills. Additionally, boys exhibit higher object control skill proficiency than girls. Compared to TGMD-2 normative data, children demonstrate “below average” to “average” FMS levels. This review highlights the scope for FMS development among children worldwide. These findings reinforce the necessity for FMS interventions in early educational settings, as FMS competence is positively associated with physical activity and other health outcomes.

Purpose: The present study examined whether groups of children with different physical fitness and fitness enjoyment profiles could be identified and, if so, whether the different groups varied from one another in terms of organized sports participation. Method: Five hundred and fifty-eight 8–11-year-olds (56.99% boys) participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness and fitness enjoyment were assessed with seven items from a standardized test battery and a pictorial scale containing pictures referring to the enjoyment in those seven physical fitness tests, respectively. To examine whether groups with different fitness and enjoyment profiles could be identified, we conducted cluster analyses based on children’s standardized physical fitness and fitness enjoyment scores. A two-way ANCOVA (sex*cluster) was conducted to investigate differences in weekly organized sports participation among each of the identified groups while controlling for age. Results: Cluster analyses revealed two groups with aligned levels of physical fitness and fitness enjoyment (i.e., relatively low-low and relatively high-high) and two groups with unaligned levels (i.e., relatively low-moderate and relatively high-moderate), respectively. Both groups with relatively high fitness scores were found to spend significantly more time in organized sports (M = 2.01 h and 2.29 h, respectively) than the two groups with relatively low fitness scores (M = 1.08 h and 0.98 h, respectively), irrespective of their enjoyment levels. Conclusion: Increasing physical fitness levels (especially among those children with suboptimal enjoyment levels) may lead to increased organized sports participation, while increased organized sports participation in its turn may lead to higher fitness levels. As such, participation in sports programs should be promoted in children of all age groups.

In 1989, Clark and Whitall asked the question, “What is motor development?” They were referring to the study of motor development as an academic research enterprise and answered their question primarily by describing four relatively distinct time periods characterized by changes in focus, theories or concepts, and methodology. Their last period was named the process-oriented period (1970–1989). In hindsight, it seems clear that their last period could be divided into two separate historical time periods: the information-processing period (1970–1982) and the dynamical systems period (1982–2000). In the present paper, we briefly revisit the first three periods defined by Clark and Whitall, and expand and elaborate on the two periods from 1970 to the turn of the century. Each period is delineated by key papers and the major changes in focus, theories or concepts, and methodology. Major findings about motor development are also described from some papers as a means of showing the progression of knowledge.

Background: Childhood obesity is a global public health issue. Interventions to prevent the onset of obesity in the early years are often implemented in preschool settings. The ToyBox intervention was delivered across Europe and targeted energy balance‐related behaviours in preschools and children's homes through teacher‐led activities and parental education materials and was adapted for use in Scotland. This study assessed the acceptability of the 18‐week adapted intervention to both parents and teachers. Methods: Mixed methods were employed to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Preschool staff and children's parents/caregivers completed post‐intervention feedback surveys, from which acceptability scores were calculated and presented as proportions. Focus groups were conducted with preschool staff, whereas parents/caregivers participated in semi‐structured interviews. A thematic analysis was applied to qualitative data following the development of a coding framework. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using SPSS and NVivo 10, respectively. Results: Preschool staff rated the intervention as highly acceptable based on post‐intervention feedback surveys (80%; mean score 8.8/11). Lower acceptability scores were observed for parents/caregivers (49%; 3.9/8). Nine preschool practitioners participated in focus groups (n = 3). User‐friendliness of the intervention materials, integration of the intervention with the curriculum, and flexibility of the intervention were identified as facilitators to delivery. Barriers to delivery were time, insufficient space, and conflicting policies within preschools with regard to changing classroom layouts. Parental interviews (n = 4) revealed a lack of time to be a major barrier, which prevented parents from participating in home‐based activities. Parents perceived the materials to be simple to understand and visually appealing. Conclusions: This study identified a number of barriers and facilitators to the delivery and evaluation of the ToyBox Scotland preschool obesity prevention programme, which should be considered before any further scale‐up of the intervention.

Childhood obesity is a major public health issue, which is reflected in the high number of interventions which have been developed to target the behaviors which cause obesity in childhood such as a lack of physical activity, poor diet, and sedentary behavior. The ToyBox programme was originally developed and tested in mainland Europe, and has now been adapted for use in Scottish preschools. This case describes the systematic approach that was taken to adapt the ToyBox programme. The intervention mapping protocol was used to guide the adaptation process in the absence of guidelines for adapting existing interventions. A Co-creation approach was used to involve stakeholders in intervention adaptation procedures. Preschool practitioners participated in workshops, where proposed intervention components were discussed and agreed upon. Proposed intervention activities were trialed out in a volunteer preschool, and an experienced preschool practitioner assisted in the adaptation of classroom materials, intervention content, and methods of delivery in order align the intervention with Scottish preschool practice. The adaptations resulted in the ToyBox-Scotland intervention being significantly different from the original European programme, whereby two major components of the original intervention were removed, and substantial adaptations were made to the delivery and content of the remaining components. Involving stakeholders in the adaptation of an existing intervention is important to ensure the programme is suitable for those who will be delivering and receiving it. However, it is currently unclear as to how much adaptation should be undertaken, highlighting the need for the creation of evidence-based guidelines for intervention adapters.

Purpose:The present study examined the motor competence of preschool children from Belgium and the United States (US), and the influence of perceived motor competence on actual motor competence. A secondary objective was to compare the levels of motor competence of Belgian and US children using the US norms of the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2).Methods:All participants (N = 326; ages 4–5 years) completed the TGMD-2 and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children.Results:Belgian children performed significantly higher on actual object control and locomotor skills than US children. However, both Belgian and US children scored significantly worse on the TGMD-2 when compared to the US norm group from 1997–1998. Furthermore, perceived motor competence was significantly related to actual object control skills but not locomotor skills.Conclusion:The present study showed cross-cultural differences in actual motor competence in young children. The findings also indicate a secular downward trend in childhood competence levels, possibly due to a decrease in physical activity and increase in sedentary behavior. Future research should consider conducting an in-depth exploration of physical activity contexts such as physical education to better understand cross-cultural differences in motor competence.

Background High levels of childhood obesity have been observed globally over the last three decades. Preschools are promising settings to implement obesity prevention interventions in the early years. The aim of this study was to test the feasibility of a cluster randomised controlled trial of the ToyBox-Scotland preschool obesity prevention intervention. Methods Six preschools in predominantly deprived areas of Glasgow, UK, were randomised to either the ToyBox intervention (n = 3) or usual curriculum control group (n = 3). The intervention ran for 18 weeks from March–June 2018, and consisted of practitioner-led physical activity and sedentary behaviour sessions in preschools, with an additional interactive home component. Primary outcome measures were intervention fidelity, recruitment rates, attrition rates, and compliance with trial procedures. Secondary outcomes were body mass index (BMI) z-score, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time via activPAL accelerometer, and parent-reported home eating, snacking, and water consumption. Results The preschool component of the intervention was implemented with high fidelity (64%), while the home component was implemented with low fidelity (41%). A cluster-level recruitment rate of 10% was achieved, and the individual-level recruitment rate was 18% (42/233 children, mean age 4.4 years; 17 girls). The attrition rate was 14%, and compliance rates varied considerably by the outcome. Compliance was highest for BMI (86%), while 19% of the sample returned valid accelerometer data for both baseline and follow-up and the parental questionnaire response rate was 23%. Both intervention and control groups showed small increases in BMI z-scores at follow-up of 0.02 and 0.06, respectively. Both groups had small decreases in physical activity and increases in sedentary time at follow-up. Conclusions Before progression to an effectiveness trial, additional procedures should be considered to improve recruitment rates, compliance with outcome measures, and implementation of the home-based component of the ToyBox-Scotland intervention. Trial registration ISRCTN12831555

Introduction It is important to understand young children's motivation within Physical Education (PE) so that researchers and teachers can effectively support children's physical, affective, social and cognitive development as well as physical activity (PA) behaviors. However, there is a dearth of motivation research in PE with children under the age of seven due to a lack of developmentally appropriate assessment tools. Aims This multi-study paper outlines the development, content and construct validity of a novel, mixed-method tool to assess young children's psychological needs and behavioral regulation within PE (Motivation Assessment Tool for Physical Education; MAT-PE). Methods Study 1 consisted of the iterative development of the MAT-PE through working with 43 young children (ages 5–6) from three primary schools located within a large city in North West England. MAT-PE version 1 was subsequently examined for content validity in 85 children (ages 5–6) from 12 primary schools located within a large city in North West England and nine independent researchers with expertise in self-determination theory. Study 2 consisted of the development, content validation, acceptability and inter- and intra-rater reliability of the MAT-PE codebook. Study 3 explored construct validity through hypothesis-testing via correlational data. Descriptive data captured through the MAT-PE and codebook with 78 children (ages 5–6) from 12 primary schools located within a large city in North West England is also presented. Findings The MAT-PE and its codebook were judged to have promising content validity, the codebook was deemed acceptable, as well as demonstrating excellent inter- and intra-rater reliability (ICC = 0.90). Regarding construct validity, as hypothesised, all psychological needs were positively correlated and autonomous regulations were negatively associated with amotivation. There were also unexpected correlations such as the negative correlation between intrinsic and identified regulation. Conclusion Further development of the MAT-PE is required; nevertheless, this study has taken a promising first step in developing a tool to comprehensively measure five-to six-year-old children's motivational perceptions in PE.

Objectives: Positive relationships among perceived motor competence (PMC), motivation for sports and global self- worth have been identified in previous studies by means of variable-centered analyses. However, it remains unclear how actual motor competence (AMC) relates to both correlates. To gain more insight into the role of both AMC and PMC in terms of motivation and self-worth, the present used a person-centered approach aiming at a) investigating if different combinations of AMC and PMC exist, and b) exploring how children with different types of MC-based profiles might differ in terms of quality of motivation for sports and global self-worth. Methods: 161 children (40% boys; age=8.82 ± 0.66y) completed validated questionnaires to assess PMC and global self-worth (SPPC), and motivation for sports (BREQ). Children’s AMC was assessed with the KTK. Person- centered analyses were used to identify different MC- based clusters. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to investigate differences between clusters in terms of motivation and global self-worth. Results: Four clusters could be retained: two groups were characterized by relatively high or low levels of both AMC and PMC (i.e. high-high, low-low), in addition we also identified children with relatively high AMC but relatively low PMC (high-low), and children with relatively low AMC but relatively high PMC (low-high). Children with relatively low PMC displayed significantly lower levels of autonomous motivation for sports (β0=3.88; SE=.15 and β0=4.07; SE=.15 respectively) than children with relatively high PMC; (β0=4.55; SE=.12 and β0=4.43, SE=.12), independent from whether these low levels of PMC were combined with high levels of AMC or not. A similar result was found for global self-worth. Conclusion: The results show that children with low PMC are less motivated for sports and have a lower global self-worth than children with high PMC, even if they have high AMC. These findings emphasize that developing children’s PMC seems crucial to stimulate their motivation for sports and their global self-worth.

Objective: To examine children’s energy expenditure (EE) during object projection skill performance at three intensity intervals. Methods: Children’s (42, Mage = 8.1) average metabolic equivalents of task (METs) were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 while they repeatedly performed blocks of kicking, throwing (overhand), and striking (two-handed) during 6, 12, and 30-s interval conditions. A repeated-measures analysis of covariance examined differences in METs while controlling for skill level. Results: Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 2, 123, F = 94.36, p 4.0 METs) and intervals of 6s demonstrated vigorous physical activity (>7.0 METs). Practicing/performing object projection skills, even at intervals that allow for adequate instruction and feedback (i.e., 1 trial/30s), promotes MVPA in children.

Objectives To offer a user’s guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents. Design Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC). Methods The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children’s motor competence. Results A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice. Conclusions Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs.

Background Motor competence and physical fitness are important factors for promoting positive trajectories of health over time. In 2008, Stodden and colleagues developed a model that discussed the role of both factors in physical activity. Furthermore, the authors hypothesized that the relationship between motor competence and physical fitness is reciprocal and changes over time. Objective The aim of the present meta-analysis was to synthesize the evidence on the relationship between motor competence and components of physical fitness from early childhood to early adulthood and the potential influence of age. Methods Scientific databases Web of Science and PubMed were used for literatures search. German as well as English studies were included that assessed typically developing children. In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, 93 studies between 2005 and June 2018 were screened in full. Nineteen studies comprising of 32 samples, 87 single data points from 15,984 participants aged 4.5 to 20.4 years (Mage = 11.44, SD = 4.77) were included in the analysis. ResultsA random effects model was conducted for the meta-regression with age as moderator variable. The relationship between motor competence and physical fitness was moderate to large (r = .43, p < .001) after controlling for multiple effects, including dependent samples and small sample sizes in the quantitative synthesis. Additionally, age was a small significant positive moderator of the effect size. Conclusions and implicationsThe findings provide support for a moderate to large positive relationship between motor competence and physical fitness that strengthens with increasing age. However, the results also indicate that there may be an overlap in content between motor competence and physical fitness assessments, which warrants further investigation. Further research is needed that assesses the similarities and differences also in terms of the construct structures.

The present study aimed at examining differences in motor competence (MC) in children aged 6 to 9 years old in northern, central, and southern European regions using the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK). The secondary aim of the study was to examine interactions between region and children's age, sex and weight status (determined as healthy weight or overweight/obese). Data was pooled from independent studies conducted in Finland (mean age 7.81 ± 1.19 years, n = 690), Belgium (mean age 8.25 ± 1.09 years, n = 1,896) and Portugal (mean age 8.31 ± 1.02 years, n = 758) between 2008 and 2016. Cross-cultural differences in MC and interaction effects were tested using ANOVAs and ANCOVAs. Age, sex and BMI percentile were used as covariates. Geographical region significantly explained 19% of the variance in MC, while BMI (5%), sex (3%) and age (0.3%) were significant covariates. The interaction effect of region and age (5%), region and sex (0.6%) and region and BMI (0.2%) on MC was also significant. Cross-cultural differences in children's MC seem to increase substantially across 6 to 9 years, independent of the prevalence of overweight or obesity. Girls slightly underperformed in MC compared to boys in regions where the overall level of MC was lower. On the other hand, the association between body weight status and MC seems relatively consistent across the cultures. Future cross-cultural studies should further explore the influence of individual (e.g. physical activity) and environmental (e.g. physical activity and sport policy) factors on MC development. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Previous Active Healthy Kids Scotland Report Cards from 2013 and 2016 (www.activehealthykidsscotland.co.uk) demonstrated that only a small minority of Scottish school-aged children and adolescents meet the recommended amount of daily moderate-tovigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA; ≥60 minutes). These low levels of MVPA occur despite a favorable physical and policy environment in Scotland. Previous report cards also identified major limitations in surveillance of physical activity and related behaviors in Scotland. The aim of this short paper is to (a) summarize the Scottish grades included in the Global Matrix 3.0 (www.activehealthykids.org) and (b) highlight the continuing limitations in surveillance of physical activity among children and adolescents in Scotland.

AIM: This study aimed to understand the fundamental motor skills (FMS) of Belgian children using the process-oriented Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2) and to investigate the suitability of using the United States (USA) test norms in Belgium. METHODS: FMS were assessed using the TGMD-2. Gender, age and motor performance were examined in 1614 Belgian children aged 3-8 years (52.1% boys) and compared with the US reference sample. RESULTS: More proficient FMS performance was found with increasing age, from 3 to 6 years for locomotor skills and 3 to 7 years for object control skills. Gender differences were observed in object control skills, with boys performing better than girls. In general, Belgian children had lower levels of motor competence than the US reference sample, specifically for object control skills. The score distribution of the Belgian sample was skewed, with 37.4% scoring below average and only 6.9% scoring above average. CONCLUSION: This study supported the usefulness of the TGMD-2 as a process-oriented instrument to measure gross motor development in early childhood in Belgium. However, it also demonstrated that caution is warranted when using the US reference norms.

IntroductionThere is an increasing need for the adoption of effective preschool obesity prevention interventions to combat the high levels of early-childhood obesity in the UK. This study will examine the feasibility and acceptability of the adapted version of the ToyBox intervention—a preschool obesity prevention programme—for use in Scotland (ToyBox-Scotland). This will inform the design of a full-scale cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT).Methods and analysisThe ToyBox-Scotland intervention will be evaluated using a feasibility cluster RCT, which involves children aged 3–5 years at six preschools in Glasgow, three randomly assigned to the intervention group and three to the usual-care control group. The original ToyBox intervention was adapted for the Scottish context using a coproduction approach. Within the 18-week intervention, physical activity and sedentary behaviour will be targeted in the preschool through environmental changes to the classroom, physical activity sessions and movement breaks. Parents will receive home activity packs every 3 weeks containing sticker incentives and interactive parent–child games that target sedentary behaviour, physical activity, eating/snacking and water consumption. As this is a feasibility study, parameters such as recruitment rates, attrition rates and SDs of outcome measures will be obtained which will inform a power calculation for a future RCT. Additional variables to be assessed include accelerometer-measured physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep, body mass index, home screen time, eating/snacking and water consumption. Outcomes will be assessed at baseline and 14–17 weeks later. Intervention fidelity will be assessed using questionnaires and interviews with parents and practitioners, observation and session delivery records.Ethics and disseminationThis study was granted ethical approval by the University of Strathclyde’s School of Psychological Sciences and Health Ethics Committee. Results will be disseminated through publication in peer-reviewed journals, presentation at conferences and in lay summaries provided to participants.Trial registration numberISRCTN12831555.

Gross motor skills encompass a broad array of large muscle movements, from rudimentary skills like rolling and sitting to highly specialized skills such as the serve and forehand in tennis. This entry focuses on a subset of gross motor skills called fundamental motor skills (FMS), which are considered the building blocks to later physical activity and sports performance. FMS include locomotor skills like running and jumping and object control skills such as throwing and catching, along with nonlocomotor skills such as balance. The identification of gross motor delay with regard to FMS occurs when a child fails to achieve important developmental milestones, often lagging 2 years or more behind the typical age- based norm for that skill. The purpose of this entry is to provide a brief overview of FMS and describe gross motor delay in a variety of populations. The entry concludes by examining common interventions.

Introduction: One of the most sensitive developmental periods is preschool age, where motor assessments help to describe motor development. The purpose of this study was to investigate the construct of motor competence, which is defined as the ability that underlies the performance of a wide variety of motor skills (Haga, Pedersen, & Sigmundsson, 2008). In motor tests, a composite score, built out of different motor skills (Burton & Rodgerson, 2001), often indicates this construct. Methods: Using the MOT 4-6 (Zimmer & Volkamer, 1987), data were collected in 1467 children (aged 3-6 years) in Flanders, Belgium. The MOT 4-6 is a frequently used test assessment in preschool and consists of 17 items (3-level categories). Results: Detailed analyses using the Partial Credit Model and mixed Rasch model revealed a one-dimensional structure (CR = 1.964, pCR = .06; P-χ² = -.227, pP-χ² = .24). Due to unordered threshold parameters, 5 items were excluded. These items have the same scoring system counting zero, one or more successful trials, which deviates from the other items. The remaining items attain the requirements of objective measurement provided by Rasch measurement and therefore can be accumulated to one composite score. Conclusion: The study shows item and person homogeneity within a validated composite score for the MOT 4-6, using 12 instead of 17 MOT 4-6 items. Thus, it provides evidence in terms of a single latent construct (i. e. motor competence), that underlies the performance of motor skills in preschool children. Furthermore, it shows that some scoring systems are less suitable in motor competence assessment.

Introduction The development of motor competence in early childhood substantially contributes to successful engagement in sports and other physical activities. In view of the decreasing levels of physical activity and motor skills in children over the past decades, an appropriate assessment and monitoring of motor competence in early childhood is invaluable, for both research and practice [1] . The purpose of this study was to investigate the convergent validity between two motor competence assessment tools: the KorperkoordiantionsTest fur Kinder (KTK) and the Motoriktest fur Vier- bis Sechsjahrige Kinder (MOT 4-6). Methods Five hundred and thirty 5- and 6-year-old children (277 ♂ and 253 ♀; mean age = 5.95; SD = 0.57) were tested by practiced assessors on the KTK and MOT 4-6 during the same day. From the raw scores, a Motor Quotient was calculated based on normative data of the KTK and MOT 4-6. Results A Pearson correlation demonstrated a moderately strong positive association between KTK Motor Quotient and MOT 4-6 Motor Quotient (r = 0.605). Crosstabs showed a fair level of agreement between the two tests (K = 0.313; P Conclusion These findings provide some but limited evidence of convergent validity between KTK and MOT 4-6. The explanation for the lack of stronger associations probably lies in the different concepts that are evaluated in each test battery. The implication of this moderate level of agreement between KTK and MOT 4-6, is that practitioners and/or clinicians should be aware of possible categorisation errors when using the KTK or MOT 4-6 test to detect motor impairments.

Background/Purpose: The US Department of Health and Human Services recommends that children participate daily in 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). A threshold of >4.0 METs (metabolic equivalent of task) is considered MVPA in children. Physical education classes are ideal settings for the promotion of MVPA through the practice of continuous (walking, running) and discrete (kicking, throwing, striking) skills. Recent research in adults has determined the energy expenditure of discrete skill practice to be high while participants’ rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was low. The replication of this phenomenon in children would provide evidence for the inclusion of discrete skill practice in curricula aiming to promote MVPA. Thus, this study examined energy expenditure (METs), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and level of fun during object projection skill performance (kicking, throwing, and striking) at three different practice intervals in children. Method: Children (N = 42, Mage = 8.1 ± 0.8 years) participated in three nine-minute experimental sessions where participants performed rounds of 5 kicks, 5 throws, and 5 strikes in blocked fashion, at three practice intervals (i.e., 30, 12, and 6 seconds). Each participant completed the three sessions in a randomized order. Participants were instructed to perform all trials with maximum effort and to report their RPE (1 “Not tired at all” – 10 “So tired, I can’t go anymore”) and level of fun (1 “Not fun at all” – 10 “The most fun I’ve ever had”) using 10-point scales. The average energy expenditure (METs) during minutes 4-8 of each nine-minute session were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 gas analyzer. Analysis/Results: Three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs for METs, RPE, and fun were conducted to examine differences across groups and sex. Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (F = 94.36, p < .001, η2 = 0.605) with decreased interval times between performance trials yielding significantly higher METs across conditions (4.5 ± 0.8, 6.3 ± 1.3, 8.3 ± 1.6 at 30-, 12-, 6-sec interval respectively). There also was a main effect for sex (F = 52.28, p < .001, η2 = 0.305), with boys demonstrating higher METs at each performance trial interval. RPE and fun analyses determined a main effect for each interval (RPE; F = 91.16, p < .001, fun; F = 96.61, p

This study evaluated the effect of a 10-week fundamental motor skill programme in pre-schoolers with motor problems. Alongside the general effect of the intervention, we also explored possible gender differences and the role of the environmental context (living community, socio-economic status, and recreational space inside/outside the house). The intervention group (n = 47; 20 boys and 27 girls) received twenty 60-min motor skill sessions (2 per week) in addition to the regular physical education curriculum for pre-schoolers; the control group (n = 46; 21 boys and 25 girls) did not receive additional practice. General motor competence, and locomotor and object control subscales, were assessed before and after the intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd edition (TGMD-2). Data regarding environmental factors were gathered through a questionnaire. A Group x Gender x Time ANOVA revealed that the intervention group benefited significantly from the intervention and scored better than the controlgroup at the post-test for general motor competence and both sub-categories (locomotor and object control skill). Moreover, the intervention programme was found to be effective in helping 49% of the intervention group to achieve an average motor skill level, according to the TGMD-2 norms, while a further decline in motor competence was observed in the control group. Interestingly, the effect appeared to be gender-specific, since object control skill improved only in girls of the intervention group. Considering the environmental context, none of the above-mentioned factors was found to have an influence on the effectiveness of the intervention. The present study highlights the need for an early motor skill programme with a gender-specific approach in order to help low skilled boys and girls master a diverse set of motor skills.

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) play a crucial role in the physical activity (PA) levels of children. Yet, many children across the globe demonstrate below average skill levels. Cross-cultural research on FMS is limited due to the adoption of different motor assessments. The aim of this study was to investigate the actual FMS as well as the association between FMS and skill perceptions of children from Belgium and the United States (US). The study sample consisted of 197 (57.4% boys) Belgian and 171 (44.4% boys) US children, aged 3 to 5 years. Children’s FMS were assessed with the Test of Gross Motor Development–2nd edition and their skill perceptions (PMC) were assessed with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine country differences and the role of skill perceptions in children’s FMS. Results show that Belgian children scored significantly higher on both locomotor skills (beta=10.45; SE=1.86; p.05). Country status did not influence these relationships. The cross-cultural difference in FMS between Belgian and US children may be accounted for by the fact that Belgian children receive physical education (PE) from a specialist starting at 3 years of age and US children only receive well-equipped free play. The lack of country differences in the relationship between actual and perceived FMS may be because PMC is just emerging at this age and country differences in self-perception may not occur until children are older. Future research may consider exploring cultural differences in PA contexts such as PE and access to playgrounds and organized sports to provide appropriate recommendations for practitioners and policy makers.

Purpose The present study investigated the dimensionality and homogeneity of motor competence, which is defined as the ability that underlies the performance of a wide variety of motor skills, in early childhood using a large set of items. Method A total of 1467 children (aged 3–6 years) were measured with the Motor Proficiency Test for 4- to 6-Year-old Children (Motoriktest fur vier-bis sechsjahrige Kinder [MOT 4-6]), which consists of 17 items. Results Analyses using the Partial Credit Model and mixed Rasch model revealed a one-dimensional structure (CR = 1.964, pCR = .06; P-χ2 = −.227, p p - χ 2 = .24 ). Due to unordered threshold parameters, five items were excluded. These items have a scoring system that counts the amount of successful trials (0–2). Conclusion The study shows item and person homogeneity within a validated motor score, using 12 items of the MOT 4-6. Thus, it provides evidence of a single latent construct (i.e., motor competence), which underlies the performance of motor skills in early childhood. Furthermore, it shows that counting the number of successful trails may be less suitable as a scoring system in motor competence assessment. Present findings also support the use of validated composite scores in motor assessment.

The aim of this study was to investigate the convergent and divergent validity between the Body Coordination Test for Children (KTK) and the Motor Proficiency Test for 4- to 6-Year-Old Children (MOT 4-6). A total of 638 children (5–6 yr old) took part in the study. The results showed a moderately positive association between the total scores of both tests (rs = .63). Moreover, the KTK total score correlated more highly with the MOT 4-6 gross motor score than with the MOT 4-6 fine motor score (rs = .62 vs. .32). Levels of agreement were moderate when identifying children with moderate or severe motor problems and low at best when detecting children with higher motor-competence levels. This study provides evidence of convergent and divergent validity between the KTK and MOT 4-6. However, given the moderate to low levels of agreement, either measurement may lead to possible categorization errors. Therefore, it is recommended that children’s motor competence not be judged based on the result of a single test.

In the article by Bardid F., Huyben F., Deconinck F.J.A., De Martelaer K., Seghers J., & Lenoir M., “Convergent and Divergent Validity Between the KTK and MOT 4-6 Motor Tests in Early Childhood, ” in Adapted Pyhsical Activity Quarterly, 33(1), the wrong DOI was printed. The DOI for this article is http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/APAQ.2014-0228. The online version has been corrected.

BackgroundLearning to cycle is an important milestone for children, but the popularity of cycling and the environmental factors that promote the development and practice of this foundational movement skill vary among cultures and across time. This present study aimed to investigate if country of residence and the generation in which a person was born influence the age at which people learn to cycle.MethodsData were collected through an online survey between November 2019 and December 2020. For this study, a total of 9,589 responses were obtained for adults (self-report) and children (parental report) living in 10 countries (Portugal, Italy, Brazil, Finland, Spain, Belgium, United Kingdom, Mexico, Croatia, and the Netherlands). Participants were grouped according to their year of birth with 20-year periods approximately corresponding to 3 generations: 1960–79 (generation X; n = 2,214); 1980–99 (generation Y; n = 3,994); 2000–2019 (generation Z; n = 3,381).ResultsA two-way ANOVA showed a significant effect of country, F(9,8628) = 90.17, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.086, and generation, F(2,8628) = 47.21, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.122, on the age at which individuals learn to cycle. Countries with the lowest learning age were the Netherlands, Finland and Belgium and countries with the highest learning age were Brazil and Mexico. Furthermore, the age at which one learns to cycle has decreased across generations. There was also a significant country x generation interaction effect on learning age, F(18,8628) = 2.90, p < 0.001; however, this effect was negligible (ηp2 = 0.006).ConclusionsThese findings support the socio-ecological perspective that learning to cycle is a process affected by both proximal and distal influences, including individual, environment and time.