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International audience; The hepatitis E virus (HEV) genome is a single‐stranded, positive‐sense RNA that encodes three proteins including the ORF1 replicase. Mechanisms of HEV replication in host cells are unclear, and only a few cellular factors involved in this step have been identified so far. Here, we used brefeldin A (BFA) that blocks the activity of the cellular Arf guanine nucleotide exchange factors GBF1, BIG1, and BIG2, which play a major role in reshuffling of cellular membranes. We showed that BFA inhibits HEV replication in a dose‐dependent manner. The use of siRNA and Golgicide A identified GBF1 as a host factor critically involved in HEV replication. Experiments using cells expressing a mutation in the catalytic domain of GBF1 and overexpression of wild type GBF1 or a BFA‐resistant GBF1 mutant rescuing HEV replication in BFA‐treated cells, confirmed that GBF1 is the only BFA‐sensitive factor required for HEV replication. We demonstrated that GBF1 is likely required for the activity of HEV replication complexes. However, GBF1 does not colocalise with the ORF1 protein, and its subcellular distribution is unmodified upon infection or overexpression of viral proteins, indicating that GBF1 is likely not recruited to replication sites. Together, our results suggest that HEV replication involves GBF1‐regulated mechanisms.

International audience; The hepatitis E virus (HEV) genome is a single‐stranded, positive‐sense RNA that encodes three proteins including the ORF1 replicase. Mechanisms of HEV replication in host cells are unclear, and only a few cellular factors involved in this step have been identified so far. Here, we used brefeldin A (BFA) that blocks the activity of the cellular Arf guanine nucleotide exchange factors GBF1, BIG1, and BIG2, which play a major role in reshuffling of cellular membranes. We showed that BFA inhibits HEV replication in a dose‐dependent manner. The use of siRNA and Golgicide A identified GBF1 as a host factor critically involved in HEV replication. Experiments using cells expressing a mutation in the catalytic domain of GBF1 and overexpression of wild type GBF1 or a BFA‐resistant GBF1 mutant rescuing HEV replication in BFA‐treated cells, confirmed that GBF1 is the only BFA‐sensitive factor required for HEV replication. We demonstrated that GBF1 is likely required for the activity of HEV replication complexes. However, GBF1 does not colocalise with the ORF1 protein, and its subcellular distribution is unmodified upon infection or overexpression of viral proteins, indicating that GBF1 is likely not recruited to replication sites. Together, our results suggest that HEV replication involves GBF1‐regulated mechanisms.

Comment in : New Models to Study Hepatitis E Virus Replication and Particular Characteristics of Infection: The Needle Hides in the Hay Stack. [Gastroenterology. 2018]; International audience; BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is a major cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. Approximately 2 billion people live in areas endemic for HEV and are at risk of infection. The HEV genome encodes 3 proteins, including the ORF2 capsid protein. Detailed analyses of the HEV life cycle has been hampered by the lack of an efficient viral culture system.METHODS: We performed studies with gt3 HEV cell culture-produced particles and patient blood and stool samples. Samples were fractionated on iodixanol gradients and cushions. Infectivity assays were performed in vitro and in human liver chimeric mice. Proteins were analyzed by biochemical and proteomic approaches. Infectious particles were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. HEV antigen levels were measured with the Wantaï enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.RESULTS: We developed an efficient cell culture system and isolated HEV particles that were infectious in vitro and in vivo. Using transmission electron microscopy, we defined the ultrastructure of HEV cell culture-produced particles and particles from patient sera and stool samples. We also identified the precise sequence of the infectious particle-associated ORF2 capsid protein. In cultured cells and in samples from patients, HEV produced 3 forms of the ORF2 capsid protein: infectious/intracellular ORF2 (ORF2i), glycosylated ORF2 (ORF2g), and cleaved ORF2 (ORF2c). The ORF2i protein associated with infectious particles, whereas the ORF2g and ORF2c proteins were massively secreted glycoproteins not associated with infectious particles. ORF2g and ORF2c were the most abundant antigens detected in sera from patients.CONCLUSIONS: We developed a cell culture system and characterized HEV particles; we identified 3 ORF2 capsid proteins (ORF2i, ORF2g, and ORFc). These findings will advance our understanding of the HEV life cycle and improve diagnosis.

International audience; GBF1 is a host factor required for hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication. GBF1 functions as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for G‐proteins of the Arf family, which regulate membrane dynamics in the early secretory pathway and the metabolism of cytoplasmic lipid droplets. Here we established that the Arf‐guanine nucleotide exchange factor activity of GBF1 is critical for its function in HCV replication, indicating that it promotes viral replication by activating one or more Arf family members. Arf involvement was confirmed with the use of two dominant negative Arf1 mutants. However, siRNA‐mediated depletion of Arf1, Arf3 (class I Arfs), Arf4 or Arf5 (class II Arfs), which potentially interact with GBF1, did not significantly inhibit HCV infection. In contrast, the simultaneous depletion of both Arf4 and Arf5, but not of any other Arf pair, imposed a significant inhibition of HCV infection. Interestingly, the simultaneous depletion of both Arf4 and Arf5 had no impact on the activity of the secretory pathway and induced a compaction of the Golgi and an accumulation of lipid droplets. A similar phenotype of lipid droplet accumulation was also observed when GBF1 was inhibited by brefeldin A. In contrast, the simultaneous depletion of both Arf1 and Arf4 resulted in secretion inhibition and Golgi scattering, two actions reminiscent of GBF1 inhibition. We conclude that GBF1 could regulate different metabolic pathways through the activation of different pairs of Arf proteins.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection progresses in most of the cases into a chronic hepatitis and can lead to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Despite the recent improvement of hepatitis C treatments, which inhibit or even block the progress of this infection into a chronic stage, a vaccine still not available and the worldwide distribution of the disease makes the hepatitis C a major public health problem. Most of the available treatments target viral proteins. However many mechanisms of the HCV life cycle remain unclear.As for many positive RNA viruses, HCV replication occurs in reorganized cellular membranes. These membrane rearrangements are closely linked to the early secretory pathway of the cell. It has been shown that GBF1, an exchange factor of small G proteins of the Arf family that regulates the membrane dynamics in the secretory pathway, is required for HCV replication. GBF1 inhibition by brefeldin A (BFA) inhibits the secretion of newly synthesized proteins and also inhibits HCV replication. To investigate the role of GBF1 in HCV infection, we isolated cell lines resistant to BFA. Two of these cell lines were 100 times more resistant than the parental cells to BFA-induced apoptosis, inhibition of proteins secretion and inhibition of HCV infection. This resistance was due to a point mutation in the catalytic sec7 domain of GBF1 of these cells. Another group of resistant cells was showing a partial resistance to the inhibition of proteins secretion while maintaining their sensitivity to the inhibition of HCV infection in the same conditions. These results suggest that GBF1 might fulfill another function, in addition to the regulation of the secretory pathway, during HCV replication. Using GBF1 deletion mutants we showed that the catalytic activity of the sec7 domain of GBF1 is required for HCV infection. This suggests that the function of GBF1 during HCV replication is mediated by Arf activation. The involvement of Arf was confirmed with the overexpression of restricted mutants of Arf1 and by the inhibition of ArfGAP1, another regulator of Arf function. We then tested the possible involvement of different Arfs (Arf1, 3, 4 and 5) in HCV infection. It has been reported that Arfs have redundant functions. The results confirm the involvement of Arf1 and indicate that all the other BFA-sensitive Arfs (Arf3, Arf4 and Arf5) are also involved in HCV infection. The combined knockdown of Arfs strongly inhibited HCV replication, showing that the Arf proteins are working together in HCV replication probably by activating several host factors required for the virus life cycle.The study of cellular factors required for HCV infection is crucial to better understand the interaction of the virus with the host cell and thus the whole HCV life cycle. This could help to develop new therapies targeting the host cell, regardless of viral genotypes and reducing the risk of emergence of new resistant forms., L’infection par le virus de l’hépatite C (HCV) évolue dans la plupart des cas en hépatite chronique et peut conduire à une cirrhose ou un carcinome hépatocellulaire. Malgré les grandes avancées dans le traitement de l’hépatite C qui permettent d’inhiber ou même de bloquer l’évolution de cette infection vers la chronicité, l’absence de vaccin ainsi que sa répartition sur la surface du globe nous permet de classer cette pathologie en problème majeur de santé publique. La majorité des traitements actuels ciblent les protéines virales et leur fonction. Cependant un grand nombre de mécanismes du cycle viral de HCV reste à élucider.Comme pour la grande majorité des virus à ARN de polarité positive, la réplication de HCV a lieu dans des membranes cellulaires modifiées. Le remaniement de ces membranes est en lien étroit avec la voie de sécrétion précoce de la cellule. Il a été montré que GBF1, un facteur d’échange nucléotidique des protéines G de la famille Arf qui régulent la dynamique membranaire, est un facteur nécessaire à la réplication de HCV. L’inhibition de GBF1 par la bréfeldine A (BFA) inhibe la voie de sécrétion des protéines cellulaires néosynthétisées et inhibe aussi la réplication de HCV. Pour étudier le rôle de GBF1 pendant l’infection nous avons établi des lignées résistantes à la BFA. Deux de ces lignées étaient 100 fois plus résistantes que les lignées parentales à l’apoptose induite par la BFA, à l’inhibition de la sécrétion des protéines et à l’inhibition de l’infection par HCV. Ce phénotype était dû à une mutation ponctuelle dans le domaine catalytique sec7 de GBF1 de ces lignées. Un autre groupe de lignées était partiellement résistantes à l’inhibition de la sécrétion des protéines par la BFA tout en conservant un niveau d’infection proche de celui des lignées parentales dans les mêmes conditions. Ces résultats suggèrent que la fonction de GBF1 pendant l’infection HCV ne serait pas réduite à la régulation de la voie de sécrétion, évoquant ainsi un rôle additionnel de GBF1 nécessaire pour la réplication de HCV.Par ailleurs, nous avons pu montrer à l’aide des mutants de délétion de la protéine GBF1, que l’activité catalytique du domaine sec7 était nécessaire. Ceci suggère l’implication d’une protéine de la famille Arf dans l’activation de l’infection HCV via GBF1. L’implication de Arf dans l’infection HCV a été confirmée par la surexpression de dominants négatifs de la protéine Arf1 et par l’inhibition de l’activité de l’ArfGAP1 (régulateur des Arf) par l’inhibiteur spécifique QS11.Nous avons ensuite testé l’implication des différents Arf sensibles à l’inhibition par la BFA (Arf1, 3 ,4 et 5), dans l’infection HCV à l’aide de si-RNA. Il a été montré que ces protéines Arf possèdent des fonctions redondantes. Nos résultats confirment l’implication de Arf1 et indiquent que les 3 autres protéines sont aussi impliquées dans l’infection HCV. D’une manière intéressante, la déplétion combinée des Arf inhibe fortement l’infection HCV suggérant ainsi un rôle essentiel de certaines protéines Arf, probablement en activant des facteurs cellulaires nécessaires à l’étape de réplication. L’étude des facteurs cellulaires impliqués dans l’infection HCV permet de mieux comprendre l’étape de réplication et par conséquent le cycle viral de HCV. Par ailleurs, l’étude de ces facteurs pourrait permettre le développement éventuel de stratégies antivirales ciblant des facteurs de la cellule hépatique indépendamment du génotype viral, limitant ainsi le risque d’émergence de variants résistants au traitement.