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Introduction: Rational use and protection of natural grasslands within legal frameworks to regulate rangeland management and prevent land degradation, especially in countries with extensive grasslands, are crucial. Land-use change from grasslands to hand-planted forests can negatively affect soil properties and biodiversity. This change may lead to a decrease in soil organic carbon reserves, an increase in apparent density, and a change in soil pH. It also has significant impacts on soil macroinvertebrates, leading to changes in their communities' structure and subsequent ecosystem functioning. Given the substantial role of soil macroinvertebrates in ecosystem performance, preserving biodiversity and food webs through their diverse ecological services, including pollination, pest suppression, and energy cycling, is essential. The reduction of soil macroinvertebrates can have negative effects on soil structure, decomposition processes, infiltration, and gas exchange, potentially resulting in land degradation and a decline in the quality of ecological services. Therefore, the preservation and enhancement of soil macroinvertebrates are of paramount importance and play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance and stability. They are also sensitive to human disturbances and are used as biological indicators for such interference with soil components. The overall aim of this study is to investigate the effects of land-use change on soil macroinvertebrates. Therefore, in this research, soil macroinvertebrates and their community structures were examined between rangelands and artificially planted forests.Materials and Methods: Sampling was conducted from the Lavizan Forest Park and its surrounding rangelands in Tehran during the spring season using the quadrat sampling method. Two sites were selected for each reigon. Each site was examined using six quadrats (0.5 m × 0.5 m). In each quadrat, soil macroinvertebrates were collected from the soil surface and depth (0-10 cm). A total of 446 samples were collected and classified into 51 morphOTUs in the planted forest and 68 morphOTUs in the rangeland based on morphological characteristics. To compare the diversity between the planted and rangeland areas, richness and diversity indices (Shannon-Wiener, Margalef, and Evenness) were calculated. Soil physicochemical properties, including soil texture (sand, silt and clay), magnesium, calcium, organic carbon, total nitrogen, biomass, and pH, were evaluated to investigate their relationship with soil macroinvertebrates.Results: The results showed that abundance was higher in rangelands than in hand-planted forests. Also, Shannon-Wiener and Evenness indices for soil macroinvertebrates in the rangelands were higher than in the hand-planted forests, indicating a significant difference between diversity and richness indices. Additionally, the results of beta diversity methods showed that turnover between the two regions occurred. The findings of the canonical correlation analysis between the main taxonomic groups and physicochemical properties showed that different variables in rangelands and hand-planted forests had an impact on macroinvertebrate communities. Discussion: The results of this study showed that land-use change from rangeland to planted forests can significantly affect the biodiversity and community structure of invertebrates. Many studies have demonstrated that land-use change can lead to changes in the density and species richness of invertebrates over time. In many cases, species sensitive to disturbance are lost and replaced by other species, resulting in a substitution between invertebrate communities. This study also found significant changes in the composition of macroinvertebrate communities following land-use change. In general, the conversion of rangeland to planted forest can lead to the restoration of biodiversity in macroinvertebrate communities over time. Despite the observed changes in community composition, forests that have been planted for many years have had enough time to recover. Given the significant increase in land-use change, especially in recent decades, comprehensive information on the impact of human disturbances on soil organisms is essential for addressing conservation issues.

Abstract The Persian fallow deer or Mesopotamian fallow Deer (Dama mesopotamica, Brook 1875), a species of significant ecological importance, had faced the threat of extinction in Iran. One conservation strategy involved the translocation of Persian deer to enclosed areas across Iran, where they were afforded protection from external threats and provided with essential care by human caretakers. While human caretakers diligently attend to their needs and mitigate external threats, climate variables may now become critical factors affecting population dynamics in enclosed areas. This study aims to assess the similarity in climate niches between the original area (Dez and Karkheh) of the Persian deer species and 11 newly enclosed areas. To achieve this, we employed climate data and ecological niche modeling (ENM) techniques to assess the variations in climate among 12 areas. We utilized the environmental equivalency test to determine whether the environmental spaces of area pairs exhibit significant differences and whether these spaces are interchangeable. Extrapolation analyses were also constructed in the next steps to explore climatic conditions in original fallow deer habitats that are non-analogous to those in other parts of Iran. Our results reveal significant disparities in climate conditions between the original and all translocated areas. Based on observations of population growth in specific enclosed areas where translocated deer populations have thrived, we hypothesize that the species may demonstrate a non-equilibrium distribution in Iran. Consequently, these new areas could potentially be regarded as part of the species’ potential climate niche. Extrapolation analysis showed that for a significant portion of Iran, extrapolation predictions are highly uncertain and potentially unreliable for the translocation of Persian fallow deer. However, the primary objective of translocation efforts remains the establishment of self-sustaining populations of Persian deer capable of thriving in natural areas beyond enclosed areas, thus ensuring their long-term survival and contributing to preservation efforts. Evaluating the success of newly translocated species requires additional time, with varying levels of success observed. In cases where the growth rate of the species in certain enclosed areas falls below expectations, it is prudent to consider climate variables that may contribute to population declines. Furthermore, for future translocations, we recommend selecting areas with climate similarities to regions where the species has demonstrated growth rates.

Abstract This study examines the impact of fire incidents on wildlife and habitats in the western oak forests of Iran (Zagros region). These forests are globally recognized for their exceptional biodiversity but are frequently threatened by wildfires. To achieve this, the study uses the space–time scan statistics permutation (STSSP) model to identify areas with a higher frequency of fires. The study also analyzes the effects of fires on the Zagros forests from 2000 to 2021 using remote-sensing MODIS data. Also, to understand the elements at risk of fire, burned areas were assessed based on the richness of vertebrate species, determined by the distribution of 88 vertebrate species. The results show that the annual fire rate in the Zagros forests is 76.2 (fire occurrences per year), calculated using the Poisson distribution. Findings show the highest fire rates are found in the northwest and a part of the south of the Zagros. The northwest of the Zagros also has the largest number of single fires and clusters, indicating a wide spatial distribution of fire in these regions. On the other side, it was unexpectedly found that these regions have the richest number of species and higher habitat value. The results demonstrate a significant correlation between the value of the habitat and the extent of burned areas (p

Abstract This study explores how climate variables influenced the evolution and diversification of Neurergus newts within the Irano‐Anatolian biodiversity hotspot. We use a dated phylogenetic tree and climatic niche models to analyze their evolutionary history and ecological preferences. Using genetic data from nuclear (KIAA) and mitochondrial (16s and 12s) genes, we estimate divergence times and identify four major Neurergus clades. The initial speciation event occurred approximately 11.3 million years ago, coinciding with the uplift of the Zagros and Anatolian mountains. This geological transformation isolated newt populations, likely triggering the first speciation event. By integrating potential geographic distribution with climate variables, we reconstruct ancestral niche occupancy profiles. This highlights the critical roles of temperature and precipitation in shaping Neurergus habitat preferences and distribution. We observe both phylogenetic niche conservatism and divergence, with niche divergence playing a dominant role in diversification. This research emphasizes the complex interplay of geography, climate, and ecology in speciation and the vulnerability of isolated mountain newt populations to environmental changes.

Introduction: The Caspian Hyrcanian forests are a habitat with ancient growth of temperate broadleaf trees that spread along the Alborz Mountain range's northern slopes and near the southern borders of the Caspian Sea. However, human activities have significantly reduced forest cover, and identifying species diversity, forest structure, and human manipulations in Hyrcanian forests have received less attention. Macroinvertebrates are the main part of soil biodiversity in forests. Earthworms are one of the main components of soil biodiversity in forests and are one of the most valuable indicators of soil health and a vital component of soil fauna. Nevertheless, studying earthworms based on their morphological features poses various challenges. To overcome these challenges, DNA barcoding has emerged as a valuable tool extensively employed in biodiversity research. The study aims to use molecular approaches to identify earthworms and their diversity and compare the communities of these animals between natural and planted forests in the Hyrcanian region.Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in the central part of the Caspian Hyrcanian forests. The research was done in three locations, with two planted and two natural areas in each location. Within each area, a total of six quadrats were randomly placed to collect samples. Subsequently, the samples were classified based on their morphological characteristics. A total of 251 earthworm samples were collected, and 22 individuals were then selected for genetic studies using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit one (COI) gene after doing morphological sorting. The samples were initially kept in 96% ethanol for genetic studies to long-term storage. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were then performed to investigate the diversity of earthworms and compare their communities between planted and natural areas and three locations. Results: Based on genetic studies, 15 taxonomic units of earthworm were identified in the study area of the Hyrcanian forests. The research findings indicate that the abundance and total number of Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) in natural and planted areas are almost the same. The results of univariate statistical analysis (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis (PERMANOVA) did not show any significant difference for earthworms between natural and planted habitats.Discussion: The study demonstrates that the utilization of barcoding techniques yields more accurate results; however, the establishment of a comprehensive DNA reference library is necessary to enhance the precision of species classification. Despite finding no significant differences in earthworm communities between natural and planted forests, notable distinctions were detected among the three studied locations. This suggests that the dependence of earthworms on planted forests is contingent upon specific characteristics, soil conditions, and management practices. Moreover, the results show that earthworms are known for their ability to adapt to a wide range of environments. It is anticipated that secondary forests, which have been established for over two decades, will provide sufficient time for the restoration of earthworm populations, contributing to overall ecosystem recovery. The significance of this knowledge lies in its contribution to the sustainable preservation and effective administration of forests, particularly the Hyrcanian forests, which represent an ancient and invaluable ecosystem.

Abstract Body mass plays a crucial role in determining the mass‐specific energy expenditure during terrestrial locomotion across diverse animal taxa, affecting locomotion patterns. The energy landscape concept offers a framework to explore the relationship between landscape characteristics and energy expenditure, enhancing our understanding of animal movement. Although the energy landscape approach solely considers the topographic obstacles faced by animals, its suitability compared to previous methods for constructing resistance maps and delineating corridors has not been comprehensively examined. In this study, we utilized the enerscape R package to generate resistance maps in kilocalories (kcal) by incorporating digital elevation models (DEMs) and body size data (kg). We assigned body sizes ranging from 0.5 to 100 kg to encompass a wide range of small and large mammals in Iran, adjusting maximum dispersal distances accordingly from 50 to 200 km. By analyzing these scenarios, we produced four resistance maps for each body size. Next, we identified potential corridors between terrestrial protected areas in Iran using the Linkage Mapper toolkit and examined barriers and pinch‐points along these paths. Our study revealed significant findings regarding the shared corridors between small and large mammals in Iran's landscape. Despite their differing body sizes and energy requirements, many corridors were found to be utilized by both small and large mammal species. For example, we identified 206 corridors for mammals weighing 500 g, which were also recognized as the least‐cost paths for 100 kg mammals. Thus, embracing a comprehensive method in resistance map creation, one that incorporates species‐specific traits and human infrastructure becomes imperative for accurately identifying least‐cost paths and consequently pinpointing pinch points and barriers.

IntroductionLand snails play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem sustainability within their habitats. Therefore, understanding the characteristics of their communities is vital for ecological studies and the development of effective conservation strategies. In this study, land snail communities inhabiting the Hyrcanian forest were identified and the variations in their community composition along elevational gradients were investigated.MethodsSnail samples were collected from three distinct elevations in three different forest locations within the Hyrcanian area of Iran. This study utilized DNA barcoding to identify land snail species. By employing statistical analyses such as ANOVA and PERMANOVA, significant differences in the features of snail communities across different elevations were examined. Concurrently, soil samples were collected from each site to assess soil physicochemical parameters about snail presence.ResultThrough this comprehensive analysis, a total of 10 OTUs, were further classified into seven families, and nine genera were identified. Five of these genera had never been reported in the study region before. We observed a decline in OTU richness with increasing elevation; however, the maximum abundance of snails was found at higher elevations. CCA demonstrated that Ca, Mg, and moisture saturation predominantly shape snail community composition.DiscussionThe unique climatic conditions and spatial distribution of precipitation from lowlands to highlands, as well as from west to east, make the Hyrcanian forests an ideal case study area for understanding the dynamics of land snail communities. In summary, this study provides new insights into the land snail communities thriving in the Hyrcanian forests. The findings from our research can contribute to the development of effective conservation management strategies for forest ecosystems. By understanding the factors influencing the distribution and composition of land snail communities, we can make informed decisions to protect and preserve land snails and the balance they maintain within their habitats.

The objective of this research was to assess the genetic diversity and phylogeography of Bombus terrestris and examine the historical events that shaped its contemporary genetic structures using the COI mitochondrial marker. Specimens of the species were collected from its distribution range alongside the Alborz Mountain range, and GenBank sequences from the Eurasian distribution range were incorporated into the dataset. The COI sequences were employed in Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses to generate phylogenetic trees for the species populations and to investigate the evolutionary history of the species. Additionally, species occurrence points and climate data were utilized in Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) analyses to reconstruct the species range under past, present, and future climate conditions. The ML and BI trees yielded similar topologies, indicating extremely low genetic diversity and a homogeneous structure in the species population distribution range in Eurasia. Demographic analyses suggested that the species may have experienced a bottleneck during the last glacial maximum in Eurasia, followed by a recent expansion. The SDM analyses revealed significant fluctuations in the species range in the past and expansion under present conditions. Given the high dispersal ability of the species, the population expansion rate has surpassed the rate of developing new genetic diversity, and the estimated polymorphic sites for the species are likely relatively recent. This low level of genetic variation can also be attributed to the absence of geographical barriers and the excellent flying ability of the queen bee, leading to sustained gene flow throughout the entire continent. Despite the general correlation between larger populations and higher genetic diversity, bumblebees can expand their population size without increasing genetic diversity when residing in resourceful habitats.

Earthworms play a crucial role in the invertebrate community of soil by contributing to the belowground biomass and biogeochemical cycle. Environmental stresses, such as human activities and land use changes, have been found to negatively affect their abundance and diversity. To investigate the impact of agricultural land use and pastures on earthworms' genetic diversity in the Northern Zagros Mountains, we used COI molecular marker and DNA barcoding approaches. We collected earthworm specimens from four farmland sites and six pastures and assessed the abundance and species composition of earthworm communities across the two land uses using quadrat sampling. Using the barcoding method, we identified 13 molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) among the captured earthworms. Our results showed that the number of total MOTUs, density, and earthworm communities differed significantly between the two land uses. We also found that pastures had more abundant earthworms, while farmlands had greater diversity. The diversity of OTUs in the Lumbricidae family was dominant in the agricultural system. Overall, the population of invasive earthworm species in cultivation systems is influenced by chemical inputs and organic materials from plant residues, cover crops, manure, or organic fertilizers. Given the rapid rate of land use change worldwide, especially in Iran, it is crucial to understand the impact of disturbances on earthworms.

Introduction: Climate change along with human development created additional pressure on ecosystems, so in many cases it has caused a decrease in biodiversity. Global climate change continues as a global crisis. Climate change does not affect all habitats and species equally. Rather, large species are more affected by climate change and habitat change and are more vulnerable than other species. Also, studies show that the countries of the Middle East have been severely affected by the effects of climate change. Large herbivores, especially red deer (Cervus elaphus), are not only affected by habitat changes resulting from climate change, but also the increase in temperature has reduced the survival rate of calves and impaired reproduction. The Caspian red deer in Iran has lost a lot of its population under the influence of habitat destruction and illegal hunting, and today the remaining population tolerate additional pressure from climate change. Central Alborz Protected Area is considered as a main breeding habitat of Caspian red deer, which is affected by human development and climate change today.Material and methods: In this study, in order to investigate the impact of climate change on the red deer population, temperature and precipitation data of two meteorological stations, Nowshahr in the lower elevations, and Baladeh in the southern elevations, were used. Also, presence and non-presence points of the species were collected random transects direct observation, as well as pictures of camera traps.Results and discussion: Using 19 climate parameters to evaluate habitat suitability in the future, it revealed that continuation of the climate change process in four optimistic to pessimistic scenarios using five MaxEnt, RF, ANN, GLM, MARS algorithms, the suitability of low altitude areas in the sectors of north and east will be reduced, and will be increased towards to highlands in southwest. The results showed that the parameters of average annual temperature, average daily temperature, average temperature of the dry season, average temperature of the hottest season, annual rainfall, rainfall in the wettest season, and rainfall in the hottest season have an effective role in determination of the habitat suitability of the species. The results of the climate data showed that the altitude plays an effective role in reducing the effects of climate change, so that the climate change in the downstream areas has a significant intensity compared to the high areas. According to the change of habitat suitability resulting from the continuation of the climate change, Kojoor forest zone shows the relative stability of desirability for the studied species in the present and future, but the Kheyrud forest road with a total length of more than 50 km is located in the depth of this area, where the traffic of vehicles of herders, ecotourists and especially illegal hunters have facilitated access to this habitat, which is the most main threat to survival of red deer in this habitat.Conclusion: With the continuation of climate change and its effects on the habitat in the future, it is expected that female deers will be observed in unsafe parts of the habitat. Therefore, for conservation of the Caspian red deer population in the central Alborz Protected Area, robust management measures are needed based on created habitat changes in the future.

Abstract Green lizards of the genus Lacerta have served as excellent models for studying the impact of Pleistocene climatic oscillations on genetic structures. The Caspian green lizard, Lacerta strigata, occupies various habitats across the Caucasus and the South Caspian Sea, with the Hyrcanian Forests and north of the Alborz Mountains forming the core of the range. This study aimed to re‐examine the phylogenetic relationships of L. strigata with other congeneric members and to assess the genetic structure and historical demography of the species. Furthermore, Species Distribution Models (SDMs) were performed to infer the species' potential habitat suitability and were then projected on climate scenarios reflecting current and past (6 ky and 21 ky before present) conditions. A total of 39 individuals collected from most of the distribution range, together with additional lacertid species sequences from the GenBank database, were examined using mtDNA (Cyt b and 12S ribosomal RNA) and nuclear (C‐mos and β‐fibrinogen) sequence data. Based on the phylogenetic analyses, L. strigata was found to be a sister taxon to all other members of the genus. The species included two main clades (regional western and eastern) that diverged in a period between the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Based on the BBM and S‐Diva analyses, both dispersal and vicariance events explained the phylogeographic structure of the species in the Hyrcanian Forests. The historical demographic analyses using Bayesian skyline plots showed a mild increase in the effective population size from about 120 Kya for the western regional clade. According to phylogeographic structures and SDMs evidence, as in other species within the region, it appears that the south of the Caspian Sea (Hyrcanian Forests), and the Alborz Mountains acted as multiple refugia during cold periods and promoted expansion outwards amid the warm periods. Overall, the results provided evidence that the genetic structure of the species has been influenced by the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations.

Introduction: Lar National Park is the best habitat of Salmo caspius in Iran. In other habitats located in Iran, the species has been threatened by different factors including habitat destruction, pollution, sand removal from the river bed, dam construction, introduction of exotic species, over-fishing, and other human mediated changes. Dalicahy River, as one of the major habitats of S. caspius, is ecologically different from other rivers in the Lar National Park. In this study, we assessed genetic differences (applying next-generation sequencing) of S. caspius in Dalichay River and Lar Lake; considering an impassable barrier in the mouth of Dalichay River. Material and methods: in this study fin clips from fish electrofished in the river and fin clips collected via angling in the lake were used. DNA extraction was performed using salt extraction method with an additional treatment with RNAse to degrade RNA molecules. To compare fish from Dalichay River and the Lar Lake, next generation sequencing was used. Analyses including principal components analysis (PCA) and Admixture, plus calculation of genetic differentiation (Fst) were used to compare the studied populations. Results and discussion: According to the results of principal components analysis (PCA) fish from the Dalichay River and the Lake were separated clearly along the first PC (25.11% of variation). But they were overlapped along other PCs. The results of Admixture analysis showed that Dalichay and Lake fish were always represented with different admixture clusters with little contribution from one another. Additionally, the genetic differentiation between the Dalichay and the Lake was significant. The reason for this differentiation can be the existence of a physical barrier in the moth of Dalichay that blocks the path for migration from Dalichay to the Lake and vice versa. On the other hand, it is possible that the fish in Dalichay are resident and do not show any preference for migration to the Lake. The residency behavior forms in result of low density of fish and satisfaction of biological and habitat related needs of the fish and hence no need for migration. Conclusion: overall, the results of this study showed that the fish in Dalichay River and in the Lake differ in their genetic composition and were significantly differentiated from one another. In any case, high differentiation of the fish in the Dalichay River and their isolation in addition to inability of fish from the Lake and other rivers in the Lar National Park to Dalichay, necessitates revision and taking better management approaches.

Wildlife habitats provide several essential services, and humans’ needs for development cause a growing conflict with wildlife. Formulating and prioritizing strategies improve conflict management and save time and costs. We used the experts’ opinions to formulate strategies. 45 management strategies were extracted that formed a decision matrix. These strategies were evaluated by 40 experts using the five-point Likert range in five criteria, i.e., productivity or efficiency, adaptability, running costs, social acceptability, and sustainability. Strategies were prioritized by forming a decision matrix and inserting it into WASPAS software. The selected strategies are “training environmentalists, waste management, empowering the local economy, modifying hunting laws, land use planning before project executions, training local communities, social-based management, training tour guides and tourists, modifying tourism-related laws, banning alien species, and road management.” Conflict is a complex phenomenon, and managing it requires multiple strategies. Therefore, combining several strategies can increase the chances of successful conflict management.

Abstract Identification and protection of habitats are essential to protect wildlife. Identifying the habitats used by some mammal species with low population density requires the application of practical techniques in this field. Molecular studies on mammalian remains in nature and genome sequencing have facilitated the process of identifying habitats as well as monitoring their populations. Therefore, designing and launching a local molecular database to identify the sequences obtained from mammalian remains and ultimately facilitate the identification of their habitats is the main purpose of this study. For this purpose, some Iranian mammal species that were in conservation categories according to national laws or IUCN criteria, as well as the keystone species, were selected for this study. The non-invasive sampling of different mammalian species was performed from all over Iran and two gene regions including D-loop and COXI were chosen for sequencing. Additional sequences of the selected species belonging to D-loop, COXI, and Cyt b mitochondrial genes were also obtained from NCBI and a Local Molecular Database (LMD) was prepared. The performance of the LMD was determined using a known query sequence, and the database recognized the query sequence correctly. This database potentially enables the correct identification of the studied mammals’ habitats by identifying sequences belonging to species that remain in their habitats and resolves the existing challenges in the field of habitat identification and conservation planning.

There are different methods to investigate the effects of climatic fluctuations on the biota, two of which, molecular phylogeography and SDM, are the most useful tools to trace the past climate induced modifications on species’ geographic distributions. In this study, seven samples were collected from the species distribution range in Iran for the purpose of measuring the genetic variation within the Iranian spiny-tailed lizards, using cytochrome b. SDM was carried out by 41 presence points and bioclimatic variables for the present and future climatic conditions (by the year 2050), employing the statistical package ‘sdm’ in order to implement the ensemble model. The results of genetic analyses revealed that the specimens from Bastak in Hormozgan Province are distinguishable from all other specimens. Haplotype diversity was calculated as 0.8. The haplotype network illustrated that the central haplotype is located in the central Iranian Plateau. Moreover, the ensemble model predicted that, while the suitable habitats of this species were found to be in the south of Iran and the Iranian Central Plateau in the present climatic conditions, there will be a decrease in the extent of these patches and Baluchistan will be added as a suitable habitat in 2050. Generally, both genetic studies and modeling predictions suggested that the western and southern specimens (Bastak in Hormozgan) were divided according to the separation of their habitats. In addition, based on modeling scenarios in the future, the optimal habitat for the species is located in the central haplotype area.

Past climatic events are one of the major drivers for divergence of species that could shape the present biodiversity and species dispersal patterns. Irano-Anatolian region is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. This region is predicted to serve various refugia during Quaternary glaciations. The eastern three-lined lizard (Lacerta media media) is a medium-sized lacertid species, which is originated from central Anatolian and is currently distributed almost across Irano-Anatolian region. In this study, the phylogeography, demographic history of the subspecies using mtDNA genes (cyt b, 12S and 16S) along with the species distribution models (SDMs) under past-present-future scenarios have been investigated. The results revealed that four distinct clades are well-established within the L. m. media which may intensely diverge during Pleistocene climatic fluctuations since the Mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT). The past climate oscillations may isolate the population in various refugia throughout the Irano-Anatolian region which has been led to this divergence. The results of SDMs also indicates several localities with suitable climate conditions for eastern three-lined lizard in the region since LGM (21 thousand years ago) until the current date. This suitability can be expanded under future climate scenarios considering the existence of various low and high altitude refugia. Some conservation implications arise from the results that emphasize the importance of the region and its multiple refugia in preserving biodiversity. It can be suggested that, future conservation practices should be focused on the obtained biogeographical units such as central Anatolia, west and northwestern Iran, which encompass high levels of diversity including distinct clades within the eastern three-lined lizard.

Predicted responses to climate change may be informed by evolutionary history. Here, the authors reconstruct the phylogeny of lacertid lizards and investigate how the evolution of this clade has varied with paleoclimates and how closely adapted extant species are to modern climates.

Genus Lacerta belonging to family Lacertidae has eight species. Previous studies did not clarify the actual taxonomic situation of Lacerta strigata. The main purposes of the present study is to re-examine the phylogenetic relationship of green lizards (with special focus on L. strigata) by adding more samples and also investigating L. strigata intraspecific genetic structure in its geographic distribution. Therefore, 20 new samples were obtained from Armenia, Georgia and some were collected in the north of Iran. All samples were sequenced for mitochondrial gene, cytochrome b. Additional sequences obtained from GenBank were added to our sequences and the resulted data set was analyzed using two different phylogenetic inference approaches; Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian. The results indicate that all species in genus Lacerta form a monophyletic group and Caspian green lizard is sister taxon to all other species in the genus. Also, there are two separate clades within the species which are also geographically distinct. This study confirms the results of previous studies and the separation of Caspian green lizard from other species in the genus.

Introduction: Carnivores have always been exposed to threatening processes because of their placement at the top of the food pyramid. Nowadays, approximately 65% of carnivores are listed as Critically Endangered or Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of threatened species. On a global scale, in order Carnivora, the Hyaenidae family is the smallest with only four species. Hyaena hyaena is the only member of the Hyaenidae faimly in Iran, which is listed as “Near Threatened” (NT) in the IUCN Red List. The current study aimed to model the species distribution of the striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), which has a wide distribution in Iran. Materials and methods: Using nineteen layers of climatic variables, the correlations between those variables were analyzed and then highly correlated variables were excluded from the modeling process. Finally, eight species distribution models from the sdm package (GLM, GAM, BRT, SVM, RF, MARS, CART, and FDA) in R software were used. Given that the output of species distribution models are often uncertain, which is an undeniable fact, one possible solution to estimate the difference between projections and reduce the uncertainty, is the use of ensemble prediction system instead of using a single modeling method. Therefore, after determining the potential habitats of the Hyaena hyaena with those eight mentioned models and by using the ensemble prediction system, the best regions for the distribution of this species in Iran were estimated. Results and discussion: The results of this study showed that annual mean temperature, seasonal precipitation and precipitation of the warmest season have the most influence on the distribution of Hyaena hyaena. In general, FDA, GAM, BRT, CART and GLM models are fairly reliable, the MARS model is very reliable, and SVM and RF models are completely reliable. The results showed that the GLM, GAM, BRT, MARS, CART, RF models demonstrate that the suitable areas for Hyaena hyaena are generally the central regions of Iran, while the SVM and FDA models predicted the southern margin of the Caspian sea to make the best regions for the distribution of this species. Conclusion: The difference in the predictions that each model makes confirms the uncertainty between models. Therefore, the necessity of using Ensemble method is revealed. The results of the Ensemble model showed that the most suitable regions for the Hyaena hyaena species distribution are semi-arid and central steppe regions of Iran.

While traditionally species recognition has been based solely on morphological differences either typological or quantitative, several newly developed methods can be used for a more objective and integrative approach on species delimitation. This may be especially relevant when dealing with cryptic species or species complexes, where high overall resemblance between species is coupled with comparatively high morphological variation within populations. Rock lizards, genus Darevskia, are such an example, as many of its members offer few diagnostic morphological features. Herein, we use a combination of genetic, morphological and ecological criteria to delimit cryptic species within two species complexes, D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii, both distributed in northern Iran. Our analyses are based on molecular information from two nuclear and two mitochondrial genes, morphological data (15 morphometric, 16 meristic and four categorical characters) and eleven newly calculated spatial environmental predictors. The phylogeny inferred for Darevskia confirmed monophyly of each species complex, with each of them comprising several highly divergent clades, especially when compared to other congeners. We identified seven candidate species within each complex, of which three and four species were supported by Bayesian species delimitation within D. chlorogaster and D. defilippii, respectively. Trained with genetically determined clades, Ecological Niche Modeling provided additional support for these cryptic species. Especially those within the D. defilippii-complex exhibit well-differentiated niches. Due to overall morphological resemblance, in a first approach PCA with mixed variables only showed the separation between the two complexes. However, MANCOVA and subsequent Discriminant Analysis performed separately for both complexes allowed for distinction of the species when sample size was large enough, namely within the D. chlorogaster-complex. In conclusion, the results support four new species, which are described herein.

We used pitfall trapping to investigate the effects of elevation, plant density and soil structure on species diversity and the impact of these habitat factors on lizard habitat selectivity in the Qom Province in the Central Plateau of Iran. From a total of 12 1-ha plots, we captured 363 individuals of 15 species of lizards (six species of Lacertidae, five species of Agamidae, two species of Gekkonidae, one species of Varanidae and one species of Scincidae). A generalized linear model (GLM) determined that elevation was the most important factor impacting species diversity. The highest species diversity was at the intermediate elevation (1289 m). Abundance of 6 out of 15 species showed strong relationships with some habitat factors. These relationships were demonstrated by habitat selectivity index (Ivlev's index). Our result supports other surveys that showed that elevation plays an important role in determining lizard species diversity.

The climatic cycles of the Quaternary, during which global mean annual temperatures have regularly changed by 5-10°C, provide a special opportunity for studying the rate, magnitude, and effects of geographic responses to changing climates. During the Quaternary, high- and mid-latitude species were extirpated from regions that were covered by ice or otherwise became unsuitable, persisting in refugial retreats where the environment was compatible with their tolerances. In this study we combine modern geographic range data, phylogeny, Pleistocene paleoclimatic models, and isotopic records of changes in global mean annual temperature, to produce a temporally continuous model of geographic changes in potential habitat for 59 species of North American turtles over the past 320 Ka (three full glacial-interglacial cycles). These paleophylogeographic models indicate the areas where past climates were compatible with the modern ranges of the species and serve as hypotheses for how their geographic ranges would have changed in response to Quaternary climate cycles. We test these hypotheses against physiological, genetic, taxonomic and fossil evidence, and we then use them to measure the effects of Quaternary climate cycles on species distributions. Patterns of range expansion, contraction, and fragmentation in the models are strongly congruent with (i) phylogeographic differentiation; (ii) morphological variation; (iii) physiological tolerances; and (iv) intraspecific genetic variability. Modern species with significant interspecific differentiation have geographic ranges that strongly fluctuated and repeatedly fragmented throughout the Quaternary. Modern species with low genetic diversity have geographic distributions that were highly variable and at times exceedingly small in the past. Our results reveal the potential for paleophylogeographic models to (i) reconstruct past geographic range modifications, (ii) identify geographic processes that result in genetic bottlenecks; and (iii) predict threats due to anthropogenic climate change in the future.

Natrix natrix is, together with N. tessellata, the only representative of water snakes found in Iran. The lack of ecological studies on this species in Iran stimulated the current preliminary research on some basic biological traits. From April to July 2008, a total of fifty five snakes were collected from two stations in the southern part of the Caspian Sea coast, Iran: Gomishan Wetland and Sari. Basic morphometrics were compared between sexes and stations and gonadal development was compared between stations and seasons. At the two stations, adult sex ratio was not different from 1:1 and juveniles composed a predominant portion of the sample. Both sexes had unimodal length class size with a peak at 40-45 cm snout-vent length (SVL). Body sizes were unusually small for the species and no SVL sexual dimorphism was detected although males were relatively heavier than females for the same SVL. Snakes of both sexes attained larger size with better body condition at Sari than in Gomishan. Males and females carried more mature gonads in summer. However, in Sari males developed relatively larger testes earlier in the season and both sexes displayed less synchronic reproduction at this station. These results are best explained by local variations in habitat, trophic availability and degree of environmental disturbance.