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We present a multisite evaluation of meteorological variables in the Everest region (Nepal) from ERA5-Land and High Asian Refined Analysis, version 2 (HARv2), reanalyses in comparison with in situ observations, using classical statistical metrics. Observation data have been collected since 2010 by seven meteorological stations located on or off glacier between 4260 and 6352 m MSL in the upper Dudh Koshi basin; 2-m air temperature, specific and relative humidities, wind speed, incoming shortwave and longwave radiations, and precipitation are considered successively. Overall, both gridded datasets are able to resolve the mesoscale atmospheric processes, with a slightly better performance for HARv2 than that for ERA5-Land, especially for wind speed. Because of the complex topography, they fail to reproduce local- to microscale processes captured at individual meteorological stations, especially for variables that have a large spatial variability such as precipitation or wind speed. Air temperature is the variable that is best captured by reanalyses, as long as an appropriate elevational gradient of air temperature above ground, spatiotemporally variable and preferentially assessed by local observations, is used to extrapolate it vertically. A cold bias is still observed but attenuated over clean-ice glaciers. The atmospheric water content is well represented by both gridded datasets even though we observe a small humid bias, slightly more important for ERA5-Land than for HARv2, and a spectacular overestimation of precipitation during the monsoon. The agreement between reanalyzed and observed shortwave and longwave incoming radiations depends on the elevation difference between the station site and the reanalysis grid cell. The seasonality of wind speed is only captured by HARv2. The two gridded datasets ERA5-Land and HARv2 are applicable for glacier mass and energy balance studies, as long as either statistical or dynamical downscaling techniques are used to resolve the scale mismatch between coarse mesoscale grids and fine-scale grids or individual sites.

Recent glacier mass changes are very heterogeneous in High Mountain Asia, owing to climatic variability and the mass balance sensitivity to climate, which may differ from one region to another. Mera glacier in the Everest region is one of the longest field-based monitored and well-studied glaciers of the Central Himalaya. In this study, we examine the sensitivity of Mera glacier mass balance to climate variables using the COupled Snowpack and Ice surface energy and mass balance model in PYthon (COSIPY), using 4 years (2016-2020) of in-situ meteorological data recorded at different elevations in the ablation and accumulation zones of the glacier. This shows that the net short-wave radiation is the main energy input at the surface, and in turn albedo is a key parameter controlling the glacier mass balance. As a result, at 5360 m asl, in the ablation zone, surface melt accounts for 90% of mass loss whereas sublimation and subsurface melt account for less than 10%. This analysis is performed at point scale at 5360 and 5770 m asl, in the ablation and accumulation zones respectively, as well as in a distributed way. We produce and analyze 88 distinct climatic scenarios, varying from dry and warm to wet and cold conditions. Dry conditions, primary during the pre-monsoon and secondary during the monsoon, strongly decrease the glacier mass balance, revealing that the annual amount and the seasonal distribution of snowfalls primary drives the glacier-wide mass balance of Mera Glacier.

In 2004, we painstakingly measured the thinning of a single glacier tongue (the Mer de Glace, Mont-Blanc) from pairs of SPOT (CNES) satellite optical stereo-images. It then took us nearly 20 years before we managed to up-scale such observations to the global scale. In this presentation, I will illustrate the advances (in terms of data availability and processing) and all the collaborative work that led to a spatially-resolved and almost complete estimation of mass changes for the more than 200,000 glaciers on Earth. These new data paint a global picture of accelerating glacier mass loss since 2000 and pave the way toward improved projections of future glacier mass and sea level contribution.

Quantifying glacier elevation and volume changes is critical to understanding the response of glaciers to climate change and related impacts, such as regional runoff and global sea-level rise. Spaceborne remote sensing techniques enable the quantification of spatially distributed glacier elevation changes at regional and global scales using multi-temporal digital elevation models (DEMs). A growing number of spaceborne studies exist to assess glacier elevation changes but they show widespread differences often beyond the error bars. Here, we present the results of a community-based inter-comparison experiment using spaceborne optical (ASTER) and radar (TanDEM-X) sensors to assess elevation changes for selected individual glaciers and regional glacier samples. Using a predefined set of DEMs, participating groups provided their own estimates using various processing strategies. For the selected individual glaciers, the results were validated using airborne data. The validation shows that the median of the spaceborne ensemble is biased by a few decimetres per year with a standard deviation of about half a meter per year. An interesting finding is that no sensor and no processing strategy perform significantly better for all experiment sites. At the regional scale, we find that the co-registration of DEMs is the most relevant processing step for an accurate assessment of elevation change. Other corrections such as gap filling, filtering, and radar penetration have less impact in general but can be essential for individual cases. Temporal corrections (i.e. seasonal and annual) can have a great impact; however, they are not yet well resolved by the remote sensing community.Our study confirms that the currently available spaceborne geodetic assessments result in relatively widespread glacier elevation changes. Therefore, we recommend an ensemble approach of observations from multiple observational sources. Furthermore, there is a need to establish best practices for related uncertainty estimates.

Retreating and thinning glaciers are icons of climate change and impact the local hazard situation, regional runoff as well as global sea level. For past reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), regional glacier change assessments were challenged by the small number and heterogeneous spatio-temporal distribution of in situ measurement series and uncertain representativeness for the respective mountain range as well as by spatial and temporal limitations and technical challenges of geodetic methods. Towards IPCC SROCC and AR6, there have been considerable improvements with respect to available geodetic datasets. Geodetic volume change assessments for entire mountain ranges have become possible thanks to recently available and comparably accurate digital elevation models (e.g., from ASTER or TanDEM-X). At the same time, new spaceborne altimetry (CryoSat-2, IceSat-2) and gravimetry (GRACE-FO) missions are in orbit and about to release data products to the science community. This opens new opportunities for regional evaluations of results from different methods as well as for truly global assessments of glacier mass changes and related contributions to sea-level rise. At the same time, the glacier research and monitoring community is facing new challenges related to the spread of different results as well as new questions with regard to best practises for data processing chains and for related uncertainty assessments.In this presentation, we introduce the Glacier Mass Balance Intercomparison Exercise (GlaMBIE) project of the European Space Agency, which is building on existing activities and the network of the International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS) working group on Regional Assessments of Glacier Mass Change (RAGMAC) to tackle these challenges in a community effort. We will present our approach to develop a common framework for regional-scale glacier mass-change estimates towards a new data-driven consensus estimate of regional and global mass changes from glaciological, DEM-differencing, altimetric, and gravimetric methods.

International audience; Current mass balance and meteorological surveys of Mera glacier located about 30 km south of Mount Everest in Nepal show the dominant role of Asian monsoon precipitation on interannual mass balance variability while temperature controls the altitude of snow-rain threshold. As these observations on mass balance variability only explore the recent decades, studies on paleo glacial extents are useful to investigate the long-term climate forcing on glacier evolution. To do so, we investigated the long-term evolution of the debris-free Mera glacier and a neighbouring small debris-free South Khare glacier. Fifty-one 10Be CRE ages were obtained from samples collected on moraine boulders and roches moutonnées. 10Be CRE ages of the boulders span from the end of the Lateglacial (19.0–11.7 ka) to the Little Ice Age (∼0.6–0.1 ka). The oldest dated moraine in this study was observed at the base of South Khare glacier with an age of 13.6 ± 0.5 ka. The two glaciers subsequently experienced their largest Holocene extent in the Early Holocene with moraines dated to 11.0 ± 0.3 ka at the base of Mera glacier and 10.8 ± 0.5 ka at the base of South Khare glacier. We did not observe any moraine from the Mid-Holocene. During the Late Holocene several glacier advances were recorded around 2.3 ± 0.2 ka, 1.5 ka and then during the last centuries at Mera glacier and around 2.8 ± 0.6 ka, and during the Little Ice Age at South Khare glacier. To explore the links between long-term Nepalese glacier changes and climate, we used oceanic and terrestrial Indian Summer monsoon reconstructions and temperature and precipitation output from two transient global climate models TraCE and LOVECLIM. These climate data outputs were corrected by a reconstruction of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) over the Holocene and its associated climatic impacts. We also used sensitivity experiments from the IPSL (Institut Pierre Simon Laplace) model to discuss the possible influence of horizontal resolution, land hydrology, vegetation and runoff on changes in Asian summer monsoon. Importantly, we show this long-term Nepalese glacier pattern does not perfectly conform neither to the Indian monsoon precipitation that is documented from terrestrial and marine records nor to temperature and precipitation changes simulated by the models. While the maximum glacier extent in the Early Holocene corresponds to enhanced precipitation documented by proxies and models, the Late Holocene glacier advance remains puzzling. We claim that new paleo glacier records and improved climate simulations are necessary to get a better understanding of past glacier changes and the associated climate dynamics, which might be crucial to gain confidence in both glacier and climate future evolutions.

The South Col Glacier is an iconic small body of ice and snow (approx. 0.2 km2), located on the southern ridge of Mt. Everest. A recent study proposed that South Col Glacier is rapidly losing mass. This seems in contradiction with our comparison of two digital elevation models derived from aerial photographs taken in 1984 and a stereo Pléiades satellite acquisition from 2017, from which we measure a mean elevation change of 0.01 ± 0.07 m a-1. To reconcile these results we investigate wind erosion and surface energy and mass balance, and find that melt is unlikely a dominant process, contrary to previous findings.

Climate change modifies the water and energy fluxes between the atmosphere and the surface in mountainous regions. This is particularly true over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), a major headwater region of the world, which has shown substantial hydrological changes over the last decades. Among them, the rapid lake level variations observed throughout the plateau remain puzzling and much is still to be understood regarding the spatial distribution of lake level trends (increase/decrease) and paces. The ground across the QTP hosts either permafrost or seasonally frozen ground and both are affected by climate change. In this environment, the ground thermal regime influences liquid water availability, evaporation and runoff. Therefore, climate-driven modifications of the ground thermal regime may contribute to lake level variations. For now, this hypothesis has been overlooked by modelers because of the scarcity of field data and the difficulty to account for the spatial variability of the climate and its influence on the ground thermo-hydrological regime in a numerical framework. This study focuses on the cryo-hydrology of the catchment of Lake Paiku (Southern Tibet) for the 1980–2019 period. We use TopoSCALE and TopoSUB to downscale ERA5 data and capture the spatial variability of the climate in our forcing data. We use a distributed setup of the CryoGrid community model (version 1.0) to quantify thermo-hydrological changes in the ground during the period. Forcing data and simulation outputs are validated with weather station data, surface temperature logger data and the lake level variations. We show that both seasonal frozen ground and permafrost have warmed (1.7 °C per century 2 m deep), increasing the availability of liquid water in the ground and the duration of seasonal thaw. Both phenomena promote evaporation and runoff but ground warming drives a strong increase in subsurface runoff, so that the runoff/(evaporation + runoff) ratio increases over time. Summer evaporation is an important energy sink and we find active layer deepening only where evaporation is limited. The presence of permafrost is found to promote evaporation at the expense of runoff, consistent with recent studies. Yet, this relationship seems to be climate dependent and we show that a colder and wetter climate produces the opposite effect. This ambivalent influence of permafrost may help to understand the contrasting lake level variations observed between the south and north of the QTP, opening new perspectives for future investigations.

Mass balance observations are very useful to assess climate change in different regions of the world. As opposed to glacier-wide mass balances, which are influenced by the dynamic response of each glacier, point mass-balances provide a direct climatic signal that depends on surface accumulation and ablation only. Unfortunately, major efforts are required to conduct in situ measurements on glaciers. Here, we propose a new approach that determines point surface mass balances from remote sensing observations. We call this balance the geodetic point surface mass balance. From observations and modelling performed on Argentière and Mer de Glace glaciers over the last decade, we show that the vertical ice flow velocity changes are small in areas of low bedrock slope. Therefore, assuming constant vertical velocities in time for such areas and provided that the vertical velocities have been measured for at least one year in the past, our method can be used to reconstruct annual point surface mass balances from surface elevations and horizontal velocities alone. We demonstrate that the annual point surface mass balances can be reconstructed with an accuracy of about 0.3 m w.e. a-1 using the vertical velocities observed over the previous years and data from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle images. Given the recent improvements of satellite sensors, it should be possible to apply this method to high spatial resolution satellite images as well.

Ground thermal regime of high mountain catchments impacts the partition between infiltration and runoff, latent and sensible heat fluxes, frozen and liquid subsurface water and the presence (or absence) of permafrost. In the context of global warming, hydrological modifications associated to ground thermal changes are of critical importance for extensive headwater regions such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and the Himalayas, which are major water towers of the world. Improving our ability to quantify these changes is therefore a key scientific challenge both regarding basic science and continental-scale water resource management. Many watersheds of the QTP have seen their hydrologic budget modified over the last decades as evidenced by strong lake level variations observed in endorheic basins. Yet, the role of ground thermal changes in these variations has not been assessed.Lake Paiku (central Himalayas, southern TP) has exhibited important level decreases since the 70s and thus offers the possibility to test the potential role of ground thermal changes and permafrost thaw on these hydrologic changes. We present distributed ground thermo-hydric simulations covering the watershed over the last four decades to discuss their implications on the lake level changes. We use the Cryogrid model to simulate the surface energy balance, snow pack dynamics and the ground thermo-hydric regime while accounting for the phase changes and the soil water budget. Because the surface radiative, sensible and latent heat fluxes in alpine environments are strongly dependent on the physiography, the model is forced with distributed downscaled forcing data produced with the TOPOSCALE model to account for this spatial variability. Simulated surface conditions are evaluated against meteorological data acquired within the basin, ground surface temperature loggers and remotely sensed surface temperatures. The simulations show that, contrary to large scale estimates of permafrost occurrence probability, an significant part of the basin is underlaid by permafrost (>20%). We also show that over the 1980-2020 period, ground temperature warmed up by 1.5 to 2°C per centuries. The permafrost limit rose from 5100 to 5300 m asl (in 40 years). Unfrozen surface conditions increased by around 25 days per century and evaporation increasing by +22% over the period. To represent the impact of these changes on the lake level, we included them in a simple hydrological budget calculation including the contribution of glacier melt and lake evaporation. This approach shows that ground thermo-hydric changes in the catchment have significantly contributed to the lake level changes. These first results highlight the potential of thermo-hydric simulation to better quantify hydrological changes to come in the QTP.

Fedchenko Glacier, located in the central Pamir in Tajikistan, is the longest glacier in Asia. Due to its prominent location and its large size, it attracted scientific interest over the course of the twentieth and twenty first centuries, providing thus a rare legacy of historical data in Central Asia. In this study, we investigate a series of topographic data from 1928 to 2019. We use topographic maps collected during historical expeditions in 1928 and 1958. We take advantage of modern satellite data, such as KH-9 spy satellite (1980), SPOT5 (2010) and Pléiades (2017 and 2019). We also rely on ICESat campaign of 2003 and numerous GNSS surveys conducted in 2009, 2015, 2016 and 2019, which ensures a proper co-registration of the satellite data.We calculate a mean rate of elevation change of -0.40 m/yr for 1928-2019, with a maximum thinning at the lowermost locations (approaching -0.90 m/yr). Despite this long-term thinning trend, we observe large contrasts between the sub-periods. The thinning rate of the tongue doubled for two sub-periods (1958-1980 and 2010-2017) compared to the long-term average. The ERA5 reanalysis (1950-2020) and the Fedchenko meteorological station records (1936-1991) reveal a dry anomaly in 1958-1980, followed by a wet anomaly in 1980-2010, which might have compensated for the temperature increase and thus mitigated mass losses. This wet anomaly could be an important feature of the “Pamir-Karakoram” anomaly, characterized by limited glacier mass losses in this region during the early twenty-first century. Our work contributes to better constrain the decadal glacier thickness changes, with unprecedented temporal resolution. This opens the way for more sophisticated approaches that link the glacier response to climate variability over decades.

In the Central Himalayas, glaciers and snowmelt play an important hydrological role, as they ensure the availability of surface water outside the monsoon period. To compensate for the lack of field measurements in glaciology and hydrology, high temporal and spatial resolution optical remotely sensed data are necessary. The French–Israeli VENµS Earth observation mission has been able to complement field measurements since 2017. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the performance of different reflectance products over the Everest region for constraining the energy balance of glaciers and for cloud and snow cover mapping applied to hydrology. Firstly, the results indicate that a complete radiometric correction of slope effects such as the Gamma one (direct and diffuse illumination) provides better temporal and statistical metrics (R2 = 0.73 and RMSE = 0.11) versus ground albedo datasets than a single cosine correction, even processed under a fine-resolution digital elevation model (DEM). Secondly, a mixed spectral-textural approach on the VENµS images strongly improves the cloud mapping by 15% compared with a spectral mask thresholding process. These findings will improve the accuracy of snow cover mapping over the watershed areas downstream of the Everest region.

Debris-covered glaciers represent potentially significant stores of freshwater in river basins throughout High Mountain Asia (HMA). Direct glacier mass balance measurements are extremely difficult to maintain on debris-covered glaciers, and optical remote sensing techniques to evaluate annual equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) do not work in regions with summer-accumulation type glaciers. Surface elevation and glacier velocity change have been calculated previously for debris-covered glaciers across the region, but the response of debris cover itself to climate change remains an open question. In this research we propose a new metric, i.e. the debris emergence elevation (ZDE), which can be calculated from a combination of optical and thermal imagery and digital elevation data. We quantify ZDE for 975 debris-covered glaciers in HMA over three compositing periods (1985–1999, 2000–2010, and 2013–2017) and compare ZDE against median glacier elevations, modelled ELAs, and observed rates of both mass change and glacier velocity change. Calculated values of ZDE for individual glaciers are broadly similar to both median glacier elevations and modelled ELAs, but slightly lower than both. Across the HMA region, the average value of ZDE increased by 70 +/− 126 m over the study period, or 2.7 +/− 4.1 m/yr. Increases in ZDE correspond with negative mass balance rates and decreases in glacier velocity, while glaciers and regions that show mass gains and increases in glacier velocity experienced decreases in ZDE. Regional patterns of ZDE, glacier mass balance, and glacier velocities are strongly correlated, which indicates continued overall increases in ZDEE and expansion of debris-covered areas as glaciers continue to lose mass. Our results suggest that ZDE is a useful metric to examine regional debris-covered glacier changes over decadal time scales, and could potentially be used to reconstruct relative mass and ELA changes on debris-covered glaciers using historical imagery or reconstructed debris cover extents.

Glaciers distinct from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are shrinking rapidly, altering regional hydrology1, raising global sea level2 and elevating natural hazards3. Yet, owing to the scarcity of constrained mass loss observations, glacier evolution during the satellite era is known only partially, as a geographic and temporal patchwork4,5. Here we reveal the accelerated, albeit contrasting, patterns of glacier mass loss during the early twenty-first century. Using largely untapped satellite archives, we chart surface elevation changes at a high spatiotemporal resolution over all of Earth’s glaciers. We extensively validate our estimates against independent, high-precision measurements and present a globally complete and consistent estimate of glacier mass change. We show that during 2000–2019, glaciers lost a mass of 267 ± 16 gigatonnes per year, equivalent to 21 ± 3 per cent of the observed sea-level rise6. We identify a mass loss acceleration of 48 ± 16 gigatonnes per year per decade, explaining 6 to 19 per cent of the observed acceleration of sea-level rise. Particularly, thinning rates of glaciers outside ice sheet peripheries doubled over the past two decades. Glaciers currently lose more mass, and at similar or larger acceleration rates, than the Greenland or Antarctic ice sheets taken separately7–9. By uncovering the patterns of mass change in many regions, we find contrasting glacier fluctuations that agree with the decadal variability in precipitation and temperature. These include a North Atlantic anomaly of decelerated mass loss, a strongly accelerated loss from northwestern American glaciers, and the apparent end of the Karakoram anomaly of mass gain10. We anticipate our highly resolved estimates to advance the understanding of drivers that govern the distribution of glacier change, and to extend our capabilities of predicting these changes at all scales. Predictions robustly benchmarked against observations are critically needed to design adaptive policies for the local- and regional-scale management of water resources and cryospheric risks, as well as for the global-scale mitigation of sea-level rise. Analysis of satellite stereo imagery uncovers two decades of mass change for all of Earth’s glaciers, revealing accelerated glacier shrinkage and regionally contrasting changes consistent with decadal climate variability.

Debris-covered glaciers constitute a substantial part of the worldwide cryosphere (Scherler et al. 2018). However, their long-term response to multi-millennial climate variability has rarely been studied, in particular in the Southern Hemisphere. The presence of both debris-covered and debris-free glaciers on Kerguelen Archipelago (49°S, 69°E) offers therefore an excellent opportunity to investigate and compare long-term evolution of these two types of glaciers. To do so, we used the cosmogenic 36Cl surface dating method on moraine boulders that allows to establish temporal constraints of glacier oscillation. We provide here the first Late Glacial and Holocene glacier chronology of a still active debris-covered glacier from the archipelago: the Gentil Glacier. Results show that the Gentil Glacier advanced once at ~14.3 ka, i.e. during the Late Glacial (19.0 – 11.6 ka), and re-advanced during the Late Holocene at ~2.6 ka (Charton et al., 2020). Both debris-covered and debris-free glaciers experienced a broadly synchronous advance during the Late Glacial, that may be assigned to the Antarctic Cold Reversal event (14.5 – 12.9 ka) (Jomelli et al., 2017; 2018). This suggests that both types (debris-covered and debris-free) of glaciers at Kerguelen were sensitive to large amplitude temperature fluctuations recorded in Antarctic ice cores (WAIS divide Project Members, 2013), associated with increased precipitations (Van der Putten, 2015). However, during the Late Holocene, the advance at about ~2.6 ka was not observed on other glaciers and seems to be a specific response of the debris-covered Gentil Glacier, either related to distinct ice dynamics or an individual response to precipitation changes. Charton et al., 2020 : Ant. Sci. 1-13Jomelli et al., 2017 : Quat. Sci. Rev. 162, 128-144Jomelli et al., 2018 : Quat. Sci. Rev. 183, 110-123Scherler et al., 2018 : GRL. 45, 11,798-11,805Van der Putten et al., 2015 : Quat. Sci. Rev. 122, 142-157WAIS Divide Project Members, 2013: Nature. 500, 440-444

Permafrost has a crucial influence on sub-surface water flow and thus on the hydrology of catchments. Its thawing drives the release of frozen water and a transition from surface-water-dominated systems to groundwater-dominated systems. In the context of global warming, these hydrological modifications are of critical importance for extensive headwater regions such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and the Himalayas. Permafrost covers a significant proportion of these regions (40% of the QTP), which are major water towers of the world. Therefore, improving our understanding and ability to quantify these changes are a key scientific challenge.Many watersheds of the QTP have seen their hydrologic budget modified over the last decades as evidenced by strong lake level variations observed in endorheic basins. Yet, the possible contribution of permafrost thaw to these variations has not been assessed. The Paiku basin (central Himalayas, southern TP) finds itself in a similar situation. The Paiku lake at the lowest point of this endorheic basin has exhibited important level decreases since the 70’s and thus offers the possibility to test the potential role of permafrost thaw on these hydrologic changes. We present permafrost simulations at the scale of the basin over the last four decades that reproduce its degradation as result of regional climatic change. We use the Cryogrid model to simulate the surface energy balance, snow pack dynamics and the ground thermal regime while accounting for the phase changes and the soil water budget. Because the surface radiative, sensitive and latent heat fluxes in alpine environments are strongly dependent on the physiography the model is forced with distributed downscaled forcing data produced with the TOPOSCALE model to account for this spatial variability. Simulated surface conditions are evaluated against meteorological data acquired within the basin and remotely sensed surface temperatures.The simulations show that, contrary to large scale estimates of permafrost occurrence probability, an important part of the basin is underlaid by permafrost. During the simulated period, permafrost distribution and active layer exhibit limited variations (active layer deepening neighboring 10 cm) yet deeper ground temperatures (7-8 m) show a warming close to 0.8 degree (0.2 degree per decade). These first results tend to indicate a limited contribution of permafrost to the catchment hydrology over the last decades, a trend that could be significantly modified in the future if the simulated warming rates persist and lead to increased permafrost thawing.

ASTER Team: Georges Aumaître, Didier L. Bourlès and Karim Keddadouche; International audience; Debris-covered glaciers constitute a large part of the world's cryosphere. However, little is known about their long-term response to multi-millennial climate variability, in particular in the Southern Hemisphere. Here, we provide first insights into the response of a debris-covered glacier to multi-millennial climate variability in the sub-Antarctic Kerguelen Archipelago, which can be compared to that of recently investigated debris-free glaciers. We focus on the Gentil Glacier and present thirteen new 36 Cl cosmic-ray exposure ages from moraine boulders. The Gentil Glacier experienced at least two glacial advancesthe first one during the Late Glacial (19.0-11.6 ka) at ~14.3 ka and the second one during the Late Holocene at ~2.6 ka. Both debris-covered and debris-free glaciers advanced broadly synchronously during the Late Glacial, most probably during the Antarctic Cold Reversal event (14.5-12.9 ka). This suggests that both glacier types at Kerguelen were sensitive to abrupt temperature changes recorded in Antarctic ice cores, associated with increased moisture. However, during the late Holocene, the advance at about ~2.6 ka was not observed in other glaciers and seems to be an original feature of the debris-covered Gentil Glacier, either related to distinct dynamics or distinct sensitivity to precipitation changes.

Mass balance observations are very useful to assess climate change in different regions of the world. As opposed to glacier-wide mass balances, which are influenced by the dynamic response of each glacier, point mass-balances provide a direct climatic signal that depends on surface accumulation and ablation only. Unfortunately, major efforts are required to conduct in situ measurements on glaciers. Here, we propose a new approach that determines point surface mass balances from remote sensing observations. We call this balance the geodetic point surface mass balance. From observations and modelling performed on Argentière and Mer de Glace glaciers over the last decade, we show that the vertical ice flow velocity changes are small in areas of low bedrock slope. Therefore, assuming constant vertical velocities in time for such areas and provided that the vertical velocities have been measured for at least one year in the past, our method can be used to reconstruct annual point surface mass balances from surface elevations and horizontal velocities alone. We demonstrate that the annual point surface mass balances can be reconstructed with an accuracy of about 0.3 m w.e. a−1 using the vertical velocities observed over the previous years and data from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle images. Given the recent improvements of satellite sensors, it should be possible to apply this method to high spatial resolution satellite images as well.

Two giant glaciers at the Aru range, western Tibetan Plateau, collapsed suddenly on 17 July and 21 September 2016, respectively, causing fatal damage to local people and their livestock. The ice avalanches, with a total volume of 150 × 106 m3, had almost melted by September 2019. Based on in-situ observation, bathymetry survey and satellite data, here we show the impacts of the two glacier collapses on the downstream lakes, the outflow Aru Co and the terminal Memar Co, in terms of lake morphology, water level and water temperature in the subsequent four years (2016–2019). After the first glacier collapse, the ice avalanche slid into Aru Co along with a large amount of debris, which significantly modified the lake’s shoreline and bathymetry. Lake surface temperature (LST) at Aru Co and Memar Co exhibited a significant decrease of 2–4 oC in the first 1–2 weeks after the first glacier collapse due to the intruding ice into Aru Co and its melting. Memar Co significantly deepened by 12.5 m between 2000 and 2018, with accelerated lake level increase after the glacier collapses. Memar Co expanded rapidly at a rate of 0.80 m/yr between 2016 and 2019, which is about 30 % higher than the average rising rate between 2003 and 2014. The meltwater from ice avalanches was found to contribute to about 26.4 % of the increase in lake storage between 2016 and 2019. This study implies that the Aru glacier collapses had long-term and dramatic impacts on the downstream lakes.

The northern Patagonian Icefield (NPI) is the second largest ice mass in Patagonia (3740 km²). Estimation of recent volume changes confirm an acceleration of ice loss in the last decades compared to the mean mass loss since the Little Ice Age. However, Icefield-wide responses at shorter time scales (5-25 yrs) are still poorly documented and not well understood.We compare five digital elevation models (DEM) acquired between 1975 and 2016 over the NPI: SPOT6 and SPOT7 DEMs for year 2016, SPOT5-HRS DEMs for 2012 and 2005, the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission DEM (SRTM) for year 2000 and the earlier Chilean military institute cartography (IGM) derived from aerial photographs acquired in 1975. We derive cefield-wide mass balances during four different time periods (1975-2000, 2000-2005, 2005-2012, 2012-2016). Our results suggest an acceleration of mass loss from 1975 to 2016. Although error bars are large, we suggest a shift from moderately negative icefield-wide mass balance rates before 2000 (of the order of -0.6 m w.e. yr-1), towards larger mass losses during the first decade of the 21st century(of the order of -0.8 m w.e. yr-1) and even more negative value from 2012 to 2016 (-1.2 ± 0.2 m w.e. yr-1).But these results must be considered cautiously. The 1975-2000 map of elevation change shows a thickening rate of over 1 m/yr which are not supported by image analysis. We stress the need to construct a revised 1975 NPI topography in order to document the NPI mass balance observations back to 1975 with improved confidence.

The world’s glaciers distinct from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are shrinking rapidly, altering regional hydrology and raising global sea level. Yet, due to the scarcity of globally consistent observations, their recent evolution is only known as a heterogeneous temporal and geographic patchwork and future projections are thus not optimally constrained.Here, we present the first globally complete, consistent and resolved estimate of glacier mass change derived from more than half a million digital elevation models (DEMs) generated or extracted from multiple satellite archives including ASTER, ArcticDEM and REMA. Combining state-of-the-art numerical photogrammetry and novel statistical approaches, we reconstruct two decades of glacier surface elevation change at an unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. We validate our results by comparing them to independent, high-precision elevation measurements from the ICESat and IceBridge campaigns, as well as to very high resolution DEM differences from LiDAR, Pléiades, and SPOT-6. The elevation time series are integrated to volume changes for every single glacier on Earth and, by assuming an average density, aggregated to regional and global mass changes. We compare our revised glacier mass changes to earlier estimates derived from altimetry, gravimetry, geodetic and field data. As an illustration, our integrated geodetic mass loss over all Icelandic glaciers yields -8.3 +- 1.1 Gt yr-1 over the period 2002-2016 in agreement with a recent gravimetry estimate of -8.3 +- 1.8 Gt yr-1 (Wouters et al., 2019), known to perform well in this region. Both estimates are more negative than -5.7 +- 1.2 Gt yr-1, compiled from glaciological observations and geodetic data (Zemp et al., 2019).Our global estimate of glacier mass change constitutes a new benchmark dataset that will help to: (i) assess present-day and future climate change impacts on glaciers; (ii) close the sea-level rise budget; (iii) assess the threat on water resources and (iv) facilitate research on natural hazards related to glaciers. Our results specifically provide a strong observational basis that holds a great potential to further our understanding of the multi-scale morphologic and climatic drivers of glacier mass change, essential to improve physically-based glaciological modelling and calibrate future projections.

Andean glaciers are among the fastest shrinking and largest contributors to sea level rise on Earth. They also represent crucial water resources in many tropical and semi-arid mountain catchments. Yet the magnitude of the recent ice loss is still debated. Here we present Andean glacier mass changes (from 10° N to 56° S) between 2000 and 2018 using time series of digital elevation models derived from ASTER stereo images. The total mass change over this period was −22.9 ± 5.9 Gt yr−1 (−0.72 ± 0.22 m w.e. yr−1 (m w.e., metres of water equivalent)), with the most negative mass balances in the Patagonian Andes (−0.78 ± 0.25 m w.e. yr−1) and the Tropical Andes (−0.42 ± 0.24 m w.e. yr−1), compared to relatively moderate losses (−0.28 ± 0.18 m w.e. yr−1) in the Dry Andes. Subperiod analysis (2000–2009 versus 2009–2018) revealed a steady mass loss in the tropics and south of 45° S. Conversely, a shift from a slightly positive to a strongly negative mass balance was measured between 26 and 45° S. In the latter region, the drastic glacier loss in recent years coincides with the extremely dry conditions since 2010 and partially helped to mitigate the negative hydrological impacts of this severe and sustained drought. These results provide a comprehensive, high-resolution and multidecadal data set of recent Andes-wide glacier mass changes that constitutes a relevant basis for the calibration and validation of hydrological and glaciological models intended to project future glacier changes and their hydrological impacts. Glaciers in the Andes have lost about 23 Gt of mass per year between 2000 and 2018, with the fastest loss in Patagonia, according to time series of digital elevation models that are based on ASTER stereo images.

We use surveys, laboratory experiments and administrative labor-market data to study how heterogeneity in the perceived immorality of work and in workers’ aversion to acting immorally interact to impact labor market outcomes. Specifically, we investigate whether those individuals least concerned with acting morally select into jobs generally perceived as immoral and whether the aversion among many individuals to performing such acts contributes to immorality wage premiums, a form of compensating differential. We show that immoral work is associated with higher wages, both using correlational evidence from administrative labor-market data and causal evidence from a laboratory experiment. We also measure individuals’ aversion to performing immoral acts and show that those who find immoral behavior least aversive are more likely to be employed in immoral work in the lab and have a relative preference for work perceived as immoral outside the laboratory. We note that sorting by “immoral” types into jobs that can cause harm may be detrimental for society. Our study highlights the value of employing complementary research methods.

Endorheic (hydrologically landlocked) basins spatially concur with arid/semi-arid climates. Given limited precipitation but high potential evaporation, their water storage is vulnerable to subtle flux perturbations, which are exacerbated by global warming and human activities. Increasing regional evidence suggests a probably recent net decline in endorheic water storage, but this remains unquantified at a global scale. By integrating satellite observations and hydrological modelling, we reveal that during 2002–2016 the global endorheic system experienced a widespread water loss of about 106.3 Gt yr−1, attributed to comparable losses in surface water, soil moisture and groundwater. This decadal decline, disparate from water storage fluctuations in exorheic basins, appears less sensitive to El Nino–Southern Oscillation-driven climate variability, which implies a possible response to longer-term climate conditions and human water management. In the mass-conserved hydrosphere, such an endorheic water loss not only exacerbates local water stress, but also imposes excess water on exorheic basins, leading to a potential sea level rise that matches the contribution of nearly half of the land glacier retreat (excluding Greenland and Antarctica). Given these dual ramifications, we suggest the necessity for long-term monitoring of water storage variation in the global endorheic system and the inclusion of its net contribution to future sea level budgeting.

Band ogives are a striking and enigmatic feature of Mer de Glace glacier flow. The surface mass balances (SMBs) of these ogives have been thoroughly investigated over a period of 12 years. We find similar cumulative SMBs over this period, ranging between −64.1 and −66.2 m w.e., on the dark and light ogives even though the dark ogive albedo is ~40% lower than that of the light ogives. We, therefore, looked for another process that could compensate for the large difference of absorbed short-wave radiation between dark and light ogives. Based on in situ roughness measurements, our numerical modeling experiments demonstrate that a significant difference in turbulent flux over the dark and light ogives due to different surface roughnesses could compensate for the difference in radiative forcing. Our results discard theories for the genesis of band ogives that are based on the assumption of a strong ice ablation contrast between dark and light ogives. More generally, our study demonstrates that future roughness changes are as important to analyze as the radiative impacts of a potential increase of aerosols or debris at the surface of glaciers.

Surges and glacier avalanches are expressions of glacier instability, and among the most dramatic phenomena in the mountain cryosphere. Until now, the catastrophic collapse of a glacier, combining the large volume of surges and mobility of ice avalanches, has been reported only for the 2002 130 × 106 m3 detachment of Kolka Glacier (Caucasus Mountains), which has been considered a globally singular event. Here, we report on the similar detachment of the entire lower parts of two adjacent glaciers in western Tibet in July and September 2016, leading to an unprecedented pair of giant low-angle ice avalanches with volumes of 68 ± 2 × 106 m3 and 83 ± 2 × 106 m3. On the basis of satellite remote sensing, numerical modelling and field investigations, we find that the twin collapses were caused by climate- and weather-driven external forcing, acting on specific polythermal and soft-bed glacier properties. These factors converged to produce surge-like enhancement of driving stresses and massively reduced basal friction connected to subglacial water and fine-grained bed lithology, to eventually exceed collapse thresholds in resisting forces of the tongues frozen to their bed. Our findings show that large catastrophic instabilities of low-angle glaciers can happen under rare circumstances without historical precedent.

Steep mountain streams have higher resistance to flow and lower sediment transport rates than expected by comparison with low gradient rivers, and often these differences are attributed to reduced near-bed flow velocities and stresses associated with form drag on channel forms and immobile boulders. However, few studies have directly measured drag and lift forces acting on bed sediment for shallow flows over coarse sediment, which ultimately control sediment transport rates and grain-scale flow resistance. Here we report on particle lift and drag force measurements in flume experiments using a planar, fixed cobble bed over a wide range of channel slopes (0.004

The aerodynamic roughness length (z0) is an essential parameter in surface energy balance studies, but few literature values exist for debris-covered glaciers. We use microtopographic and aerodynamic methods to assess the spatial variability of z0 for Lirung Glacier, Nepal. We apply Structure-from-Motion to produce digital elevation models for three nested domains: five 1 m2 plots, a 21,300 m2 surface depression, and lower 550,000 m2 of the debris-mantled tongue. Wind and temperature sensor towers were installed in the vicinity of the plots within the surface depression in October 2014. We calculate z0 according to a variety of transect-based microtopographic parameterisations for each plot, then develop a grid version of the algorithms by aggregating data from all transects. This grid approach is applied to the surface depression DEM to characterize z0 spatial variability. The algorithms reproduce the same variability among transects and plots, but z0 estimates vary by an order of magnitude between algorithms. Across the study depression, results from different algorithms are strongly correlated. Using Monin-Obukov similarity theory we derive z0 values from the meteorological data. Using different stability criteria we derive median values of z0 between 0.03 m and 0.05 m, but with considerable uncertainty due to the glacier's complex topography. Considering estimates from these algorithms, results suggest that z0 varies across Lirung Glacier between ∼0.005 m (gravels) to ∼0.5 m (boulders). Future efforts should assess the importance of such variable z0 values in a distributed energy-balance model.

The hydraulics of steep mountain streams differ from lower gradient rivers due to shallow and rough flows, energetic subsurface flow, and macro-scale form drag from immobile boulders and channel- and bed-forms. Heightened flow resistance and reduced sediment transport rates in steep streams are commonly attributed to macro-scale form drag; however, little work has explored steep river hydrodynamics in the absence of complex bed geometries. Here we present theory for the vertical structure of flow velocity in steep streams with planar, rough beds that couples surface and subsurface flow. We test it against flume experiments using a bed of fixed cobbles over a wide range of bed slopes (0.4 – 30%). Experimental flows have a nearly logarithmic velocity profile far above the bed; flow velocity decreases less than logarithmically towards the bed and is non-zero at the bed surface. Velocity profiles match theory derived using a hybrid eddy-viscosity model, in which the mixing length is a function of height above the bed and bed roughness. Subsurface flow velocities are large (> 1 m/s) and follow a modified Darcy-Brinkman-Forchheimer relation that accounts for channel slope and shear from overlying surface flow. Near-bed turbulent fluctuations decrease for shallow, rough flows and scale with the depth-averaged flow velocity rather than bed shear velocity. Flow resistance for rough, planar beds closely matches observations in natural steep streams despite the lack of bed- or channel-forms in the experiments, suggesting that macro-scale form drag is smaller than commonly assumed in stress partitioning models for sediment transport.

Karakoram glaciers experienced balanced or slightly positive mass budgets since at least the 1970s. Here, we provide an update on the state of balance of Central and Eastern Karakoram glaciers (12 000 km2) between 2008 and 2016 by differencing DEMs derived from satellite optical images. The mass budget of Central Karakoram glaciers was slightly positive (0.12 ± 0.14 m w.e. a−1) while eastern Karakoram glaciers lost mass (−0.24 ± 0.12 m w.e. a−1). The glacier-wide mass balances of surge-type and nonsurge-type glaciers were not statistically different. Our elevation change data also depict the effect of a > 100 Mm3 rock avalanche on Siachen Glacier ablation area in September 2010. It covered a 4 km2 area with a thick debris layer that unexpectedly, led to locally enhanced glacier mass loss during the following years. Enhanced melt opened a > 100 m deep 2 km2 depression and contributed to 6% of the mass loss of Siachen Glacier from 2010 to 2016 (−0.39 m w.e. a−1). We hypothesize that sub- or englacial melt may be responsible for this intriguing behaviour. This study contributes to a better knowledge of the regional pattern of the Karakoram anomaly and of the influence of rock avalanches on glacier mass changes.

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