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Background The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an ecologically and economically important species that provides pollination services to natural and agricultural systems. The biodiversity of the honey bee in parts of its native range is endangered by migratory beekeeping and commercial breeding. In consequence, some honey bee populations that are well adapted to the local environment are threatened with extinction. A crucial step for the protection of honey bee biodiversity is reliable differentiation between native and nonnative bees. One of the methods that can be used for this is the geometric morphometrics of wings. This method is fast, is low cost, and does not require expensive equipment. Therefore, it can be easily used by both scientists and beekeepers. However, wing geometric morphometrics is challenging due to the lack of reference data that can be reliably used for comparisons between different geographic regions. Findings Here, we provide an unprecedented collection of 26,481 honey bee wing images representing 1,725 samples from 13 European countries. The wing images are accompanied by the coordinates of 19 landmarks and the geographic coordinates of the sampling locations. We present an R script that describes the workflow for analyzing the data and identifying an unknown sample. We compared the data with available reference samples for lineage and found general agreement with them. Conclusions The extensive collection of wing images available on the Zenodo website can be used to identify the geographic origin of unknown samples and therefore assist in the monitoring and conservation of honey bee biodiversity in Europe.

The varroa mite (Varroa destructor), a complex ectoparasite with a very distinctive biology (Rosenkranz et al., 2010) is considered a key pest affecting beekeeping and honey bee health worldwide (T...

Bees and other pollinators play vital roles in biodiversity and food security, and they are a source of income and inspiration. Yet, bees’ biodiversity and abundance are decreasing every day. Their decline, driven by pesticides (1–3), poses serious threats to the environment, ecosystems, and human health. The European pesticide authorization framework states that a pesticide can only be put on the market if it has no harmful effects on human health or animal health and no unacceptable effects on the environment (4). EU ministries met in June to decide what constitutes an “acceptable” effect of a pesticide on bees (5). Despite scientific evidence indicating that the current level of protection is barely adequate, they tentatively agreed to provide even less protection moving forward (5). We call on EU governments to apply the maximum level of protection of pollinators from pesticides (6).

Honey bees play an important role in the maintenance of both, biodiversity and food security through pollination services and also represent an important source of income for rural areas. Despite several studies and monitoring projects gathering a large amount of data on the main factors/stressors influencing honey bee colonies, there is a lack of holistic and multidimensional statistical tools integrating different aspects which define honey bee colony health. Such tools are important to support the sustainable management of honey bees. In this study, we designed and tested a methodological framework based on Structural Equation Models for the development of a honey bee Health Status Index. The index accounts for the main abiotic (e.g. pesticide contamination, landscape characteristics) and biotic (e.g. parasitosis, virosis) factors influencing honey bee health, including the beekeepers role in managing the colony. The proposed methodology was validated against a dataset representing seven scenarios generated through Expert Knowledge Elicitation. The validation procedure showed that the Health Status Index integrates different sources of data and it can quantify the health status of a honey bee colony based on the characteristics of each scenario. Furthermore, it allows the investigation of the influence of different drivers/stressors on the health of the honey bee colony. The Health Status Index provides flexibility in the selection of variables, making it a valuable tool for holistic and harmonised assessment of honey bee health. Once validated, the index can support the evaluation at different spatial (from local- to area-wide management) and temporal (medium- to long-term management) scales to support stakeholders’ (e.g. beekeepers, risk assessors, risk managers) decision-making.

Bee bread is the only fermented product of the beehive. It constitutes the main source of proteins, lipids, vitamins, and macro- and microelements in honeybee nutrition and it exerts antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, though research on these aspects has been limited so far. In this study 18 samples of Greek bee bread, two of which were monofloral, were collected during different seasons from diverse locations such as Crete and Mount Athos and were tested for their bioactivity. Samples were analyzed for their antibacterial properties, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC), and total flavonoid content (TFC). The antimicrobial activity of each sample was tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella typhimurium. Our data demonstrate that all samples exert inhibitory and most of them bactericidal activity against at least two pathogens. Furthermore, all samples exert significant antioxidant activity, where the monofloral Castanea Sativa sample demonstrated superior antioxidant activity. Nevertheless, the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity were not strongly correlated. Furthermore, machine learning methods demonstrated that the palynological composition of the samples is a good predictor of their TPC and ABTS activity. This is the first study that focuses on the biological properties of Greek bee bread and demonstrates that bee bread can be considered a functional food and a possible source of novel antimicrobial compounds.

Background With numerous endemic subspecies representing four of its five evolutionary lineages, Europe holds a large fraction of Apis mellifera genetic diversity. This diversity and the natural distribution range have been altered by anthropogenic factors. The conservation of this natural heritage relies on the availability of accurate tools for subspecies diagnosis. Based on pool-sequence data from 2145 worker bees representing 22 populations sampled across Europe, we employed two highly discriminative approaches (PCA and F-ST) to select the most informative SNPs for ancestry inference. Results Using a supervised machine learning (ML) approach and a set of 3896 genotyped individuals, we could show that the 4094 selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) provide an accurate prediction of ancestry inference in European honey bees. The best ML model was Linear Support Vector Classifier (Linear SVC) which correctly assigned most individuals to one of the 14 subspecies or different genetic origins with a mean accuracy of 96.2% +/- 0.8 SD. A total of 3.8% of test individuals were misclassified, most probably due to limited differentiation between the subspecies caused by close geographical proximity, or human interference of genetic integrity of reference subspecies, or a combination thereof. Conclusions The diagnostic tool presented here will contribute to a sustainable conservation and support breeding activities in order to preserve the genetic heritage of European honey bees. European CommissionEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission Joint Research Centre [2013.1.3-02, 613960]; Basque GovernmentBasque Government [IT1233-19] The SmartBees project was funded by the European Commission under its FP7 KBBE programme (2013.1.3-02, SmartBees Grant Agreement number 613960) https://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7.MP was supported by a Basque Government grant (IT1233-19). The funders provided the financial support to the research, but had no role in the design of the study, analysis, interpretations of data and in writing the manuscript. WOS:000614429400001 2-s2.0-85100413967 PubMed: 33535965

Simple Summary Honey bee colonies collect pollen from plants as a source of nutrients. Diverse diets comprising pollen from many different plant species are beneficial for honey bee colony health, because they contain a greater diversity of nutrients than monofloral diets of one plant species only. Here, we present the results of the COLOSS “CSI Pollen” study on the diversity of pollen collected by honey bee colonies. In this study, beekeepers acted as citizen scientists sampling and analyzing pollen collected by their own colonies. As a simple measure of diversity, beekeepers determined the number of different colors found in pollen samples that were collected in a coordinated and standardized way. The support of 750 beekeepers allowed the collection of information about almost 18,000 pollen samples from many European countries. We found that the pollen samples consistently comprised approximately six different colors in total, of which four colors were abundant. ‘Urban’ habitats or ‘artificial surfaces’ were associated with higher pollen color diversity. This investigation highlights seasonal- and land-use-related differences in the pollen supply for honey bees, which affects beekeeping and pollinator health. Determining pollen colors is a simple, useful technique for beekeepers to estimate pollen diversity. Abstract A diverse supply of pollen is an important factor for honey bee health, but information about the pollen diversity available to colonies at the landscape scale is largely missing. In this COLOSS study, beekeeper citizen scientists sampled and analyzed the diversity of pollen collected by honey bee colonies. As a simple measure of diversity, beekeepers determined the number of colors found in pollen samples that were collected in a coordinated and standardized way. Altogether, 750 beekeepers from 28 different regions from 24 countries participated in the two-year study and collected and analyzed almost 18,000 pollen samples. Pollen samples contained approximately six different colors in total throughout the sampling period, of which four colors were abundant. We ran generalized linear mixed models to test for possible effects of diverse factors such as collection, i.e., whether a minimum amount of pollen was collected or not, and habitat type on the number of colors found in pollen samples. To identify habitat effects on pollen diversity, beekeepers’ descriptions of the surrounding landscape and CORINE land cover classes were investigated in two different models, which both showed that both the total number and the rare number of colors in pollen samples were positively affected by ‘urban’ habitats or ‘artificial surfaces’, respectively. This citizen science study underlines the importance of the habitat for pollen diversity for bees and suggests higher diversity in urban areas.

Most Varroa induced colony losses occur during the autumn or winter season as a consequence of an elevated Varroa infestation level and an insufficient health status of the adult bees. Even with an initial low Varroa infestation in early spring, critical mite and virus infection levels can be reached before winter if colonies continuously rear brood throughout the whole season. To overcome this challenge, beekeepers can artificially interrupt brood production by suitable management procedures, depending on their type of beekeeping operation. To assess their efficacy, associated workload, and impact on colony development, different methods for brood interruption (queen caging with the combination of oxalic acid treatment, total brood removal, trapping comb technique) were tested during two seasons in 11 locations on 370 colonies in 10 European countries. A protocol was developed to standardize the methods’ application across different environmental conditions. The efficacy of queen caging depended on the mode of oxalic acid application and ranged from 48.16% to 89.57% mite removal. The highest efficacies were achieved with trickling a 4.2% solution (89.57%) and with the sublimation of 2 g of oxalic acid (average of 88.25%) in the broodless period. The efficacy of the purely biotechnical, chemical-free trapping comb and brood removal methods did not differ significantly from the queen caging groups. We conclude that a proper application of one of the described brood interruption methods can significantly contribute to an efficient Varroa control and to the production of honey bee products meeting the highest quality and food- safety standards.

Honey bee colonies are fundamental for the provision of goods and ecosystem services. Honey bees are highly influenced by environmental conditions and quality, beekeepers’ management practices, socio-economic conditions and policies adopted for cropping and land use. We propose a modelling framework aiming at assessing the bee health status and forecast colony outputs. Two modelling tools are here presented: (i) a Health Status Index (HSI) exploring the consequences of abiotic, biotic drivers and beekeeping actions on bee health; and (ii) predictive models for the estimation of honey production and the provision of pollination service considering abiotic, biotic drivers and HSI. The models proposed represent useful tools for science-based decision support for beekeepers, risk managers and policymakers.

The toxic properties of arsenic are well known. Honey has been widely used for monitoring this element. The present work reports a novel method for the determination of arsenic in honey, bees, poll...

The beekeeper plays a key role in maintaining the health status of managed honey bee colonies and ensuring their productivity. However, a clear overview on the main actions carried out by beekeepers and their role for the successful management of honey bees is only partially addressed. In this study, we aim at providing: i) a generalized conceptual framework for the characterization of the Beekeeping Management Practices carried out by the European beekeepers and ii) the definition of their influence on the overall status of the honey bee colony. Six Beekeeping Management Practices were selected in this study: chemical control; replacement of combs with brood; replacement of combs with feed sources; supplementary feeding; change in the number of workers; beekeeper category and experience. Each Beekeeping Management Practice was characterized in relation to: i) the elements guiding their application, ii) the potential impacts on a honey bee colony and iii) the scenario-based variables that might influence their timing, frequency and/or efficiency. We performed an extensive literature review and an Expert Knowledge Elicitation procedure in order to estimate the uncertainty linked to some major parameters. In this paper, we successfully developed and applied a conceptual framework defining the actions carried out by European beekeepers and quantifying their impacts to a honey bee colony. The conceptual framework might support the definition of realistic scenarios of Beekeeping Management Practices in Europe for the assessment and management of the risks linked to honey bee colonies considering the potential role of the beekeeper.

In 2017 and 2018, a field survey was initiated on Greek olive orchards to investigate the attractiveness of bait spray applications and the impact of cover and bait sprays applied against the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae), on the honeybee, Apis mellifera L. and bumblebees Bombus terrestris, by investigating the pesticides&rsquo, residual prevalence. Bee colonies were evenly distributed in three sites located on coastal areas of Western Crete and visited almost weekly between July and October. Samples collected, were analyzed using existing or developed-optimized liquid and gas chromatographic methods. In bee samples, concentrations varied from 0.0013 to 2.3 mg/kg for dimethoate, from 0.0013&ndash, 0.059 mg/kg for its metabolite omethoate, and from 0.0035 to 0.63 mg/kg regarding the pyrethroids, &beta, cyfluthrin and &lambda, cyhalothrin. In one bee sample dimethoate concentration exceeded both acute oral and contact median lethal dose (LD50). Residue findings in bees, along with verified olive oil residues corroborated that those insecticides had been applied in the olive orchards and transferred to bees. The possibility of non-target effects of the bait sprays to the bees, as well as the impact of the contaminated olive to the bees are discussed.

The presence of nanoparticles on the body of the honeybee Apis dorsata Fabricius, was investigated for the first time to better understand the bee’s behaviour. These have been observed by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and confirmed by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Our study clearly denotes that the Indian rock honey bee Apis dorsata possess calcium silicate and calcium phosphate nanoparticles on its body surface of 5-50 nm in diameter. In particular, the nanoparticles on the abdomen and thorax of A. dorsata have an average diameter of about 10 nanometers and they are smaller than those found on wings of the same bees which are about 20 nanometers. The nanoparticles found are different of the ones previously observed on honey bees or other insects. The origin and role of these natural nanoparticles on the body of the Indian rock bee need to be to be further investigated; more research in the subject might raise important aspects in relation to the conservation of these unique pollinators.

The effect of sublethal doses of imidacloprid on protein content and activity of proteases on honey bees was analyzed. The study was conducted in three experimental groups: colonies from groups BE-5 and BE-200 were contaminated with 5 and 200 ppb of imidacloprid, respectively, via their food supply (syrup and pollen), while group BE was used as control (untreated). Bee samples were collected 3 and 10 weeks after feeding started. Protein concentration in bee tissue extracts was analyzed with reference: (a) to the dose of imidacloprid; and (b) duration of exposure to the chemical. The average quantity of protein content was significantly higher at the 3-week interval than in the 10-week interval and the bees from control colonies (BE) had significantly higher protein contents than contaminated bees (BE-5 and BE-200), even 3 weeks after feeding with imidacloprid started. Similarly, the activity of proteolytic enzymes (proteases) was found to be dependent on the dose of imidacloprid used, compared to bees fro...

The long term effect of HiveAlive™, a commercial food supplement, was evaluated with respect to colony population size and Nosema ceranae spore loads. The supplement was administered in sugar syrup at a dose of 2.5 ml per liter of syrup to up to 20 colonies per group for a period of 2 years. Its use before and after winter increased a colony’s worker population size by 89% and reduced Nosema ceranae spores by 57% compared to control colonies. These results represent the first-known hive manipulation to have a lasting effect on nosema spore levels. The positive effect of HiveAlive™ may have been a result of its continued use over a two-year period.

Honey bees collected from 32 different localities in Greece were studied based on the geometric morphometrics approach using the coordinates of 19 landmarks located at wing vein intersections. Procrustes analysis, principal component analysis, and Canonical variate analysis (CVA) detected population variability among the studied samples. According to the Principal component analysis (PCA ) of pooled data from each locality, the most differentiated populations were the populations from the Aegean island localities Astypalaia, Chios, and Kythira. However, the populations with the most distant according to the canonical variate analysis performed on all measurements were the populations from Heraklion and Chania (both from Crete island). These results can be used as a starting point for the use of geometric morphometrics in the discrimination of honey bee populations in Greece and the establishment of conservation areas for local honey bee populations.

An understanding of the anatomy and functions of internal and external structures is fundamental to many studies on the honey bee Apis mellifera. Similarly, proficiency in dissection techniques is vital for many more complex procedures. In this paper, which is a prelude to the other papers of the COLOSS BEEBOOK, we outline basic honey bee anatomy and basic dissection techniques.

Summary Here we cover a wide range of methods currently in use and recommended in modern queen rearing, selection and breeding. The recommendations are meant to equally serve as standards for both scientific and practical beekeeping purposes. The basic conditions and different management techniques for queen rearing are described, including recommendations for suitable technical equipment. As the success of breeding programmes strongly depends on the selective mating of queens, a subchapter is dedicated to the management and quality control of mating stations. Recommendations for the handling and quality control of queens complete the queen rearing section. The improvement of colony traits usually depends on a comparative testing of colonies. Standardized recommendations for the organization of performance tests and the measurement of the most common selection characters are presented. Statistical methods and data preconditions for the estimation of breeding values which integrate pedigree and performance data from as many colonies as possible are described as the most efficient selection method for large populations. Alternative breeding programmes for small populations or certain scientific questions are briefly mentioned, including also an overview of the young and fast developing field of molecular selection tools. Because the subject of queen rearing and selection is too large to be covered within this paper, plenty of references are given to facilitate comprehensive studies.

SummaryThe genetic variability of honey bee populations, representing Apis mellifera macedonica, Apis mellifera cecropia and Apis mellifera carnica subspecies from the Balkan Peninsula countries of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, was studied using alloenzymic analysis of six enzyme systems (MDH-1, ME, EST-3, ALP, PGM and HK) corresponding to 6 loci. All loci were found to be polymorphic in most of the populations studied. The observed heterozygosity was found to range from 0.161 to 0.276. Allele frequencies of all loci were used to estimate Nei's (1972) genetic distance, which was found to range between 0.001 and 0.101 among the populations studied. UPGMA and neighbour-joining phylogenetic trees obtained by genetic distance matrix methods show that the honey bee populations from Bulgaria and Greece were clustered together, as were those from Serbia and Montenegro.

SummaryBeekeepers in Europe, North America and other parts of the world have repeatedly been afflicted by elevated and sometimes unexplained colony losses. Multiple factors have been considered in connection with increased winter losses. In addition to national programmes investigating possible causes for increased honey bee mortality, scientists collaborate at an international level on different aspects of bee health within the COLOSS network. Within this network, Working Group 4 explores aspects of genetic diversity in relation to the vitality and health of honey bee populations. In this paper, we briefly review the genetic diversity of honey bees in Europe, discuss the effects of beekeeping and selective breeding on honey bee populations under the aspect of genetic diversity and bee health, and review the current status of EU legislation with respect to protection of native bee populations. We introduce and discuss recent approaches in honey bee selective breeding to improve disease resistance by intro...

SUMMARYThe prothoracic and propodeal spiracles of three honey bee strains used commercially in Greece (from N Greece, N Italy and Slovenia) were examined with a light microscope in order to detect possible morphological differences between the strains. This is an attempt to explain the apparent resistance against Acarapis woodi shown by the Greek Macedonian (N Greece) strain but not by the others. The propodeal spiracles of honey bees from N Greece and N Italy were examined, in addition, using a scanning electron microscope. Certain dimensions, like the length and the area of aperture in the prothoracic spiracle, were found to be significantly larger in honey bees from N Italy and Slovenia compared with the honey bees from N Greece. The length of aperture was found to be 648 μm in the honey bees from N Greece, while it was 13% larger in the honey bees from N Italy and 10% larger in the honey bees from Slovenia; the area of the aperture was found to be 103000 μm2 in the honey bees from N Greece, while it w...

Dr Fani Hatjina is a biologist in the Laboratory for Verification of Honey bee Queens' Quality at the Hellenic Institute of Apiculture? National Agricultural Organization (“DEMETER”). She is also a long serving member of IBRA Council.

In this study, different context-dependent effects of imidacloprid exposure on the honey bee response were studied. Honey bees were exposed to different concentrations of imidacloprid during a time period of 40 days. Next to these variables, a laboratory-field comparison was conducted. The influence of the chronic exposure on gene expression levels was determined using an in-house developed microarray targeting different immunity-related and detoxification genes to determine stress-related gene expression changes. Increased levels of the detoxification genes encoding, CYP9Q3 and CYT P450, were detected in imidacloprid- exposed honey bees. The different context-dependent effects of imidacloprid exposure on honey bees were confirmed physiologically by decreased hypopharyngeal gland sizes. Honey bees exposed to imidacloprid in laboratory cages showed a general immunosuppression and no detoxification mechanisms were triggered significantly, while honey bees infield showed a resilient response with an immune stimulation at later time points. However, the treated colonies had a brood and population decline tendency after the first brood cycle in the field. In conclusion, this study highlighted the different context-dependent effects of imidacloprid exposure on the honey bee response. These findings warn for possible pitfalls concerning the generalization of results based on specific experiments with short exposure times. The increased levels of CYT P450 and CYP9Q3 combined with an immune response reaction can be used as markers for bees which are exposed to pesticides in the field.

International audience; Honey bee colonies exhibit a wide range of variation in their behaviour, depending on their genetic origin and environmental factors. The COLOSS Genotype-Environment Interactions Experiment gave us the opportunity to investigate the phenotypic expression of the swarming, defensive and hygienic behaviour of 16 genotypes from five different honey bee subspecies in various environmental conditions. In 2010 and 2011, a total of 621 colonies were monitored and tested according to a standard protocol for estimation of expression of these three behavioural traits. The factors: year, genotype, location, origin (local vs. non-local) and season (only for hygienic behaviour) were considered in statistical analyses to estimate their effect on expression of these behaviours. The general outcome of our study is that genotype and location have a significant effect on the analysed traits. For all characters, the variability among locations was higher than the variability among genotypes. We also detected significant variability between the genotypes from different subspecies, generally confirming their known characteristics, although great variability within subspecies was noticed. Defensive and swarming behaviour were each positively correlated across the two years, confirming genetic control of these characters. Defensive behaviour was lower in colonies of local origin, and was negatively correlated with hygienic behaviour. Hygienic behaviour was strongly influenced by the season in which the test was performed. The results from our study demonstrate that there is great behavioural variation among different subspecies and strains. Sustainable protection of local genotypes can be promoted by combining conservation efforts with selection and breeding to improve the appreciation by beekeepers of native stock.

The term “quality” in relation to queens and drones refers to certain quantitative physical and/or behavioural characters. It is generally believed that a high quality queen should have the following physical characteristics: high live weight ; high number of ovarioles ; large size of spermatheca ; high number of spermatozoa in spermatheca ; and be free from diseases and pests. It is, however, also known that the performance of a honey bee colony is the result of its queen’s function as well as of that of the drones that mated with her. These two approaches are often considered together and give a general picture of the queen production technique and selection. Here we describe the most common and well known anatomical, physiological, behavioural and performance characters related to the queens, as measured in different European countries: the live weight of the virgin queen (Bulgaria) ; the live weight of the laying queen (Bulgaria, Italy) ; the diameter and volume of spermatheca (Bulgaria, Greece, Slovenia) ; the number of ovarioles (Greece, Italy, Slovenia) ; the weight of ovaries (Slovenia) ; the number of spermatozoa in spermatheca (Italy, Poland, Slovenia) ; the brood pattern (Bulgaria, Greece) ; the egg laying ability / fecundity (Bulgaria) ; the brood production (Croatia, Serbia) ; the colony population development (Croatia, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the honey production (Croatia, Denmark, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the hygienic behaviour (Croatia, Denmark, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the defence behaviour (Croatia) ; the calmness / sitting on the comb (Croatia, Denmark) ; and swarming (Croatia, Denmark). The data presented fit well with the findings of the same characters in the literature, and in general they support the argument for the term “quality characters”. Especially for the weight of the queen, the number of ovarioles, the volume of the spermatheca and the number of spermatozoa, data per country proved its own accuracy by repetition through the years. We also report that when instrumentally inseminated queens are kept under mass production conditions (in small cages in queen banks and with low number of attendants) they can transfer the semen to their spermatheca and clear their oviducts more efficiently when they have been inseminated with small amounts of semen in two or three sequences (but not four), compared to those inseminated with the same amount of semen at once (Poland). Furthermore, we had an inside view of the sanitary conditions of the colony: a. through the health status of the queen (nosema plus virus analysis) (Slovenia) ; and b. evaluating the nosema load of worker bees (Denmark) and of the queens (Greece). This is the first step to summarize this type of diverse data for such an important issue. The knowledge acquired can be used to fill in the existing gaps in the breeding or queen evaluation systems of each country in order to facilitate standardization of methodology for comparable results.

International audience; Diseases are known to be one of the major contributors to colony losses. Within a Europe-wide experiment on genotype - environment interactions, an initial 621 colonies were set up and maintained from 2009 to 2012. The colonies were monitored to investigate the occurrence and levels of key pathogens. These included the mite Varroa destructor (mites per 10 g bees), Nosema spp. (spore loads and species determination), and viruses (presence/absence of acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and deformed wing virus (DWV)). Data from 2010 to the spring of 2011 are analysed in relation to the parameters: genotype, environment, and origin (local vs. non-local) of the colonies in the experiment. The relative importance of different pathogens as indicators of colony death within the experiment is compared. In addition, pathogen occurrence rates across the geographic locations are described.

Propolis has a long history of use in traditional medicine dating back to at least 300 BC, and has been reported to have a broad spectrum of biological activities. Since most studies have to date focused on medical uses of propolis, its antimicrobial activity against honey bee diseases has been little studied. One of the aims of this study was therefore to investigate the potential use of propolis in honey bee health, especially against American foulbrood, which causes much damage in the beekeeping industry. The second aim was to reveal the different antimicrobial activities of propolis collected from different geographical areas from the neighbouring countries of Greece and Turkey. Propolis samples collected from several regions of Greece and Turkey were investigated for their in vitro antimicrobial activities against Paenibacillus larvae. Eighteen ethanol extracts of propolis (EEP), (nine from Greece and nine from Turkey) were tested for antimicrobial activities against ten P. larvae isolates. The results showed that all P. larvae strains were susceptible to propolis extracts from both Greece and Turkey Furthermore 50 % concentrations of EEP caused significantdy wider inhibition zones (P

International audience; Adaptation of honey bees to their environment is expressed by the annual development pattern of the colony, the balance with food sources and the host - parasite balance, all of which interact among each other with changes in the environment. In the present study, we analyse the development patterns over a period of two years in colonies belonging to 16 different genotypes and placed in areas grouped within six environmental clusters across Europe. The colonies were maintained with no chemical treatment against varroa mites. The aim of the study was to investigate the presence of genotype - environment interactions and their effects on colony development, which we use in this study as a measure of their vitality. We found that colonies placed in Southern Europe tend to have lower adult bee populations compared to colonies placed in colder conditions, while the brood population tends to be smaller in the North, thus reflecting the shorter longevity of bees in warmer climates and the shorter brood rearing period in the North. We found that both genotype and environment significantly affect colony development, and that specific adaptations exist, especially in terms of adult bee population and overwintering ability.; La adaptación de las abejas melíferas a su entorno se expresa por el patrón anual de desarrollo de la colonia, el equilibrio con las fuentes de alimentos y el equilibrio parásito-hospedador, todos los cuales interactúan entre sí con los cambios en el medio ambiente. En el presente estudio, se analizan los patrones de desarrollo en un período de dos años en las colonias pertenecientes a 16 genotipos diferentes colocadas en áreas agrupadas en seis grupos ambientales por Europa. Las colonias se mantuvieron sin tratamiento químico contra el ácaro varroa. El objetivo del estudio fue investigar la presencia de interacciones genotipo - medio ambiente y sus efectos sobre el desarrollo de colonias, que fueron utilizadas en este estudio como una medida de su vitalidad. Encontramos que las colonias situadas en el sur de Europa tienden a tener poblaciones de abejas adultas menores en comparación con las colonias situadas en condiciones más frías, mientras que la población de cría tiende a ser menor en el Norte, lo que refleja la menor longevidad de las abejas en los climas más cálidos y el periodo más corto de cría en el Norte. Se encontró que tanto el genotipo como el ambiente afectan de manera significativa al desarrollo de la colonia, y que existen adaptaciones específicas sobre todo en términos de la población de abejas adultas y la capacidad de invernar.

As part of the COLOSS GEI experiment, one apiary in Chalkidi, Greece was continuously monitored for various pests and pathogens including V. destructor mites, Nosema spp. spores, and quantitative titers of five viruses from late summer 2009 until March 2012. The apiary was established with 39 colonies which included ten A. m. carnica (CarV) colonies from Germany, ten A. m. ligustica (LigI) colonies from Italy, ten A. m. macedonica (MacB) colonies from Bulgaria and nine local A. m. macedonica (MacG) colonies from Greece. At the end of the monitoring period, eight colonies survived: six local MacG, one MacB and one LigI. The local MacG colonies consistently showed comparatively lower V. destructor infestation levels and, consequently, also low DWV titres. In contrast, LigI colonies had the highest Nosema spp. and BQCV titres. It is, however, difficult to attribute the low survival rate of non-local colonies to any single factor. Since all colonies were located in close proximity in a single apiary, and the local bees were in better health than non-local bees, we assume that the local bees were better adapted to the local environmental conditions, and handled environmental stressors better to avoid disease outbreak.

(2010). Data on honey bee losses in Greece: a preliminary note. Journal of Apicultural Research: Vol. 49, Honey bee colony losses, pp. 116-118.

An approach for improved honey bee cross-pollination of crops involves the use of hive-entrance fittings for enhancing pollen transfer between self-incompatible cultivars of fruit or nut trees, or seed crops. Hive-entrance fittings include pollen dispensers and pollen transfer devices.

WOS: 000319878900011 Most studies that have shown negative sublethal effects of the pesticide imidacloprid on honeybees concern behavioral effects; only a few concern physiological effects. Therefore, we investigated sublethal effects of imidacloprid on the development of the hypopharyngeal glands (HPGs) and respiratory rhythm in honeybees fed under laboratory conditions. We introduced newly emerged honeybees into wooden mesh-sided cages and provided sugar solution and pollen pastry ad libitum. Imidacloprid was administered in the food: 2 mu g/kg in the sugar solution and 3 mu g/kg in the pollen pastry. The acini, the lobes of the HPGs of imidacloprid-treated honeybees, were 14.5 % smaller in diameter in 9-day-old honeybees and 16.3 % smaller in 14-day-old honeybees than in the same-aged untreated honeybees; the difference was significant for both age groups. Imidacloprid also significantly affected the bursting pattern of abdominal ventilation movements (AVM) by causing a 59.4 % increase in the inter-burst interval and a 56.99 % decrease in the mean duration of AVM bursts. At the same time, the quantity of food consumed (sugar solution and pollen pastry) per honeybee per day was the same for both treated and untreated honeybees. EUEuropean Union (EU); Greek Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food; Greek-French bilateral collaboration project [PLATON 09 FR75] This work was supported by a joint project from the EU and the Greek Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food (2008-2010) and by a Greek-French bilateral collaboration project, PLATON 09 FR75. We thank Dimitra Fouka, laboratory technician in Hellenic Institute of Apiculture, for technical assistance. We are also profoundly indebted to Sharilynn Wardrop, for stylistic and linguistic improvements as well to the anonymous reviewers for valuable suggestions.