Search

Southern Distinct Population Segment (sDPS) green sturgeon spawn solely in one stretch of the Sacramento River in California. Management of this spawning habitat is complicated by cold water temperature requirements for the conservation of winter-run Chinook salmon. This study assessed whether low incubation and rearing temperatures resulted in carryover effects across embryo to early juvenile life stages on scaling relationships in growth and metabolism in northern DPS green sturgeon used as a proxy for sDPS green sturgeon. Fish were incubated and reared at 11 °C and 15 °C, with a subset experiencing a reciprocal temperature transfer post-hatch, to assess recovery from cold incubation or to simulate a cold-water dam release which would chill rearing larvae. Growth and metabolic rate of embryos and larvae were measured to 118 days post hatch. Reciprocal temperature transfers revealed a greater effect of low temperature exposure during larval rearing rather than during egg incubation. While 11 °C eggs hatched at a smaller length, log-transformed length-weight relationships showed that these differences in developmental trajectory dissipated as individuals achieved juvenile morphology. However, considerable size-at-age differences persisted between rearing temperatures, with 15 °C fish requiring 60 days post-hatch to achieve 1 g in mass, whereas 11 °C fish required 120 days to achieve 1 g, resulting in fish of the same age at the completion of the experiment with a ca. 37-fold difference in weight. Consequently, our study suggests that cold rearing temperatures have far more consequential downstream effects than cold embryo incubation temperatures. Growth delays from 11 °C rearing temperatures would greatly increase the period of vulnerability to predation in larval green sturgeon. The scaling relationship between log-transformed whole-body metabolism and mass exhibited a steeper slope and thus an increased oxygen requirement with size in 11 °C reared fish, potentially indicating an energetically unsustainable situation. Understanding how cold temperatures affect green sturgeon ontogeny is necessary to refine our larval recruitment estimations for this threatened species.

Green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) are an anadromous threatened species of sturgeon found along the Pacific coast of North America. The southern distinct population segment only spawns in the Sacramento River and is exposed to water temperatures kept artificially cold for the conservation and management of winter-run Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Past research has demonstrated costs of cold-water rearing including reduced growth rates, condition and survivorship of juvenile green sturgeon. Our research investigates how the stressors of water temperature and food limitation influence the metabolic performance of green sturgeon. We reared green sturgeon at two acclimation temperatures (13 and 19°C) and two ration amounts (100% and 40% of optimal feed). We then measured the routine and maximum metabolic rates (RMR and MMR, respectively) of sturgeon acclimated to these rearing conditions across a range of acute temperature exposures (11 to 31°C). Among both temperature acclimation treatments (13 or 19°C), we found that feed restriction reduced RMR across a range of acute temperatures. The influence of feed restriction on RMR and MMR interacted with acclimation temperature. Fish reared at 13°C preserved their MMR and aerobic scope (AS) despite feed restriction, while fish fed reduced rations and acclimated to 19°C showed reduced MMR and AS capacity primarily at temperatures below 16°C. The sympatry of threatened green sturgeon with endangered salmonids produces a conservation conflict, such that cold-water releases for the conservation of at-risk salmonids may constrain the metabolic performance of juvenile green sturgeon. Understanding the impacts of environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, dissolved oxygen) on ecological interactions of green sturgeon will be necessary to determine the influence of salmonid-focused management.

Upper thermal limits in many fish species are limited, in part, by the hearts ability to meet increased oxygen demand during high temperatures. Cardiac plasticity induced by developmental temperatures can therefore influence thermal tolerance. Here, we determined how incubation temperatures during the embryonic stage influence cardiac performance across temperatures during the sensitive larval stage of the imperiled longfin smelt. We transposed a cardiac assay for larger fish to newly hatched larvae that were incubated at 9°C, 12°C or 15°C. We measured heart rate over increases in temperature to identify the Arrhenius breakpoint temperature (TAB), a proxy for thermal optimum and two upper thermal limit metrics: temperature when heart rate is maximized (Tpeak) and when cardiac arrhythmia occurs (TArr). Higher incubation temperatures increased TAB, Tpeak and TArr, but high individual variation in all three metrics resulted in great overlap of individuals at TAB, Tpeak and TArr across temperatures. We found that the temperatures at which 10% of individuals reached Tpeak or TArr and temperatures at which number of individuals at TAB relative to Tpeak (ΔN(TAB,Tpeak)) was maximal, correlated more closely with upper thermal limits and thermal optima inferred from previous studies, compared to the mean values of the three cardiac metrics of the present study. Higher incubation temperatures increased the 10% Tpeak and TArr thresholds but maximum ΔN(TAB,Tpeak) largely remained the same, suggesting that incubation temperatures modulate upper thermal limits but not Topt for a group of larvae. Overall, by measuring cardiac performance across temperatures, we defined upper thermal limits (10% thresholds; Tpeak, 14.4-17.5°C; TArr, 16.9-20.2°C) and optima (ΔN(TAB,Tpeak), 12.4-14.4°C) that can guide conservation strategies for longfin smelt and demonstrated the potential of this cardiac assay for informing conservation plans for the early life stages of fish.

Stream restorations are increasingly critical for managing and recovering freshwater biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes. However, few studies have quantified how rehabilitative actions promulgate through aquatic communities over decades. Here, a long-term dataset is analyzed for fish assemblage change, incorporating data pre- and post-restoration periods, and testing the extent to which native assemblage stability has increased over time. In the late 1950s, a large capacity dam was installed on Putah Creek (Solano County, CA, USA), which altered the natural flow regime, channel structure, geomorphic processes, and overall ecological function. Notably, downstream flows were reduced (especially during summer months) resulting in an aquatic assemblage dominated by warm-water nonnative species, while endemic native species subsisted at low levels as subordinates. A court-mediated Accord was ratified in 2000, providing a more natural flow regime, specifically for native and anadromous fishes in the stream. The richness of nonnative species decreased at every site following the Accord, while the richness of native species increased or stayed constant. At the three most upstream sites, native species richness increased over time and ultimately exceeded nonnative richness. Native assemblage recovery was strongest upriver, closer to flow releases and habitat restoration activities, and decreased longitudinally downstream. Rank-abundance curves through time revealed that, while species evenness was low throughout the study, dominance shifted from nonnative to native species in the upstream sites coincident with rehabilitation efforts. Mean rank shifts decreased following flow rehabilitation; thus the assemblage became increasingly stable over time following flow rehabilitation. Putah Creek's rehabilitation may represent a model for others interested in improving endemic freshwater communities in degraded ecosystems.

For a Chinook salmon restoration project in the lower Yuba River in California, we designed and deployed a wireless sensor network to monitor river temperatures at micro-habitat scales. The study required that temperatures be measured along a 3 km study reach, across the channel, and into off-channel areas. To capture diel and seasonal fluctuations, sensors were sampled quarter-hourly for the full duration of the six-month juvenile salmon winter residency. This sampling duration required that nodes minimize power-use. We adopted event-based software on MSP430 micro-controllers with 433 MHz radio and minimized the networking duty-cycle. To address link failures, we included network storage. As the network lacked real-time clocks, data were timestamped at the destination. This, coupled with the storage, yielded timestamp inaccuracies, which we re-aligned using a novel algorithm. We collected over six months of temperature data from 35 sensors across seven nodes. Of the packets collected, we identified 21% as being incorrectly timestamped and were able to re-align 41% of these incorrectly timestamped packets. We collected temperature data through major floods, and the network uploaded data until the flood destroyed the sensors. The network met an important need in ecological sampling with ultra-low power (multi-year battery life) and low-throughput.

Conservation of endangered fishes commonly includes captive breeding, applied research, and management. Since 1996, a captive breeding program has existed for the federally threatened and California endangered Delta Smelt Hypomesus transpacificus, an osmerid fish endemic to the upper San Francisco Estuary. Although this program serves as a captive refuge population, with experimental releases being initiated to supplement the wild population, it was uncertain how individuals would survive, feed, and maintain condition outside hatchery conditions. We evaluated this and the effects of three enclosure designs (41% open, 63% open, and 63% open with partial outer mesh wrap) on growth, survival, and feeding efficacy of cultured Delta Smelt at two locations (Sacramento River near Rio Vista, CA and in Sacramento River Deepwater Ship Channel) in the wild. Enclosures exposed fish to semi-natural conditions (ambient environmental fluctuations and wild food resources) but prevented escape and predation. After four weeks, survival was high for all enclosure types (94-100%) at both locations. The change in condition and weight was variable between sites, increasing at the first location but decreasing at the second location. Gut content analysis showed that fish consumed wild zooplankton that came into the enclosures. Cumulatively, results show that captive-reared Delta Smelt can survive and forage successfully when housed in enclosures under semi-natural conditions in the wild. When comparing enclosure types, we observed no significant difference in fish weight changes (p = 0.58-0.81 across sites). The success of housing captive-reared Delta Smelt in enclosures in the wild provides preliminary evidence that these fish may be suitable to supplement the wild population in the San Francisco Estuary. Furthermore, these enclosures are a new tool to test the efficacy of habitat management actions or to acclimate fish to wild conditions as a soft release strategy for recently initiated supplementation efforts.

The San Francisco Estuary (SFE) is one of the most degraded ecosystems in the United States, and organisms that inhabit it are exposed to a suite of environmental stressors. The delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus), a small semi-anadromous fish endemic to the SFE and considered an indicator species, is close to extinction in the wild. The goal of this study was to investigate how environmental alterations to the SFE, such as reductions in turbidities, higher temperatures and increased prevalence of invasive predators affect the physiology and stress response of juvenile delta smelt. Juvenile delta smelt were exposed to two temperatures (17 and 21°C) and two turbidities (1-2 and 10-11 NTU) for 2 weeks. After the first week of exposure, delta smelt were exposed to a largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) predator cue at the same time every day for 7 days. Fish were measured and sampled on the first (acute) and final (chronic) day of exposures to predator cues and later analyzed for whole-body cortisol, glucose, lactate, and protein. Length and mass measurements were used to calculate condition factor of fish in each treatment. Turbidity had the greatest effect on juvenile delta smelt and resulted in reduced cortisol, increased glucose and lactate, and greater condition factor. Elevated temperatures reduced available energy in delta smelt, indicated by lower glucose and total protein, whereas predator cue exposure had negligible effects on their stress response. This is the first study to show reduced cortisol in juvenile delta smelt held in turbid conditions and adds to the growing data that suggest this species performs best in moderate temperatures and turbidities. Multistressor experiments are necessary to understand the capacity of delta smelt to respond to the multivariate and dynamic changes in their natural environment, and results from this study should be considered for management-based conservation efforts.

Understanding interpopulation variation is important to predicting species responses to climate change. Recent research has revealed interpopulation variation among several species of Pacific salmonids; however, the environmental drivers of population differences remain elusive. We tested for local adaptation and countergradient variation by assessing interpopulation variation among six populations of fall-run Chinook Salmon from the western United States. Juvenile fish were reared at three temperatures (11, 16 and 20°C), and five physiological metrics were measured (routine and maximum metabolic rate, aerobic scope, growth rate and critical thermal maximum). We then tested associations between these physiological metrics and 15 environmental characteristics (e.g. rearing temperature, latitude, migration distance, etc.). Statistical associations between the five physiological metrics and 15 environmental characteristics supported our hypotheses of local adaptation. Notably, latitude was a poor predictor of population physiology. Instead, our results demonstrate that populations from warmer habitats exhibit higher thermal tolerance (i.e. critical thermal maxima), faster growth when warm acclimated and greater aerobic capacity at high temperatures. Additionally, populations with longer migrations exhibit higher metabolic capacity. However, overall metabolic capacity declined with warm acclimation, indicating that future climate change may reduce metabolic capacity, negatively affecting long-migrating populations. Linking physiological traits to environmental characteristics enables flexible, population-specific management of disparate populations in response to local conditions.

Among the largest fish species, the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) is found circumglobally in temperate and tropical waters. Though historical documents have recorded their presence in the California Current Ecosystem (CCE), basking sharks are now only rarely observed in this part of their range. We compiled recent and historical data from systematic surveys (1962–1997) and other sources (1973–2018) to (i) examine temporal patterns of basking shark sightings in the CCE, and (ii) determine the spatial, temporal, and environmental drivers that have affected basking shark presence and distribution here for the last 50 years. We first calculated variation in basking shark sightings and school size over time. We then generated species distribution models using the systematic survey data and evaluated the performance of these models against the more recent non-systematic sightings data. The sightings records indicated that the number of shark sightings was variable across years, but the number and probability of sightings declined in the mid-1980s. The systematic survey data showed up to nearly 4,000 sharks sighted per year until the 1990s, after which there were no sightings reported. In parallel, there was more than a 50% decline in school size from the 1960s to the 1980s (57.2 to 24.0 individuals per group). During the subsequent decades in the non-systematic data (>1990), less than 60 sharks were sighted per year. There were no schools larger than 10 reported, and the mean school size in the last decade (2010s) was 3.53 individuals per group. Low sea surface temperature and high chlorophyll a concentration increased sightings probability, and prevailing climatic oscillations (El Nino-Southern Oscillation index, North Pacific Gyre Oscillation, Pacific Decadal Oscillation) were also correlated with basking shark presence. Lastly, we observed a significant shift in the seasonality of sightings, from the fall and spring during the systematic survey period to the summer months after the 2000s. We conclude by offering suggestions for future research and conservation efforts; specifically, coordinating the documentation of fisheries mortalities and sightings throughout the Pacific basin would facilitate more robust population estimates and identify sources of mortality. Additionally, monitoring shark fin markets and developing region-specific genetic markers would help ensure that convention on international trade in endangered species (CITES) regulations are being followed.

Juvenile fall-run Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Basin experience temporally and spatially heterogenous temperature regimes, between cool upper tributaries and the warm channelized Delta, during freshwater rearing and outmigration. Limited water resources necessitate human management of dam releases, allowing temperature modifications. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of temperature on specific dynamic action (SDA), or the metabolic cost associated with feeding and digestion, which is thought to represent a substantial portion of fish energy budgets. Measuring SDA with respect to absolute aerobic scope (AAS), estimated by the difference between maximum metabolic rate (MMR) and standard metabolic rate (SMR), provides a snapshot of its respective energy allocation. Fish were acclimated to 16°C, raised or lowered to each acute temperature (13°C, 16°C, 19°C, 22°C or 24°C), then fed a meal of commercial pellets weighing 2% of their wet mass. We detected a significant positive effect of temperature on SMR and MMR, but not on AAS. As expected, there was no significant effect of temperature on the total O2 cost of digestion, but unlike other studies, we did not see a significant difference in duration, peak metabolic rate standardized to SMR, time to peak, percent of meal energy utilized, nor the ratio of peak O2 consumption to SMR. Peak O2 consumption represented 10.4-14.5% of AAS leaving a large amount of aerobic capacity available for other activities, and meal energy utilized for digestion ranged from 5.7% to 7.2%, leaving substantial remaining energy to potentially assimilate for growth. Our juvenile fall-run Chinook salmon exhibited thermal stability in their SDA response, which may play a role in maintaining homeostasis of digestive capability in a highly heterogeneous thermal environment where rapid growth is important for successful competition with conspecifics and for avoiding predation.

Longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys) is a threatened anadromous fish species that spawns in freshwater to moderately brackish (i.e. 5-10 ppt) reaches of the upper San Francisco Estuary and has declined to ~1% of its pre-1980s abundances. Despite 50+ years of population monitoring, the efficacy of 10+ years of conservation efforts for longfin smelt remain uncertain due to a limited understanding of how the species responds to environmental variation, such as salinity. For example, high mortality during larval stages has prevented culture efforts from closing the life cycle in captivity. Here, we investigated the effects of salinity on longfin smelt yolk-sac larvae. Newly hatched larvae from four single-pair crosses were acutely transferred to and reared at salinities of 0.4, 5, 10, 20 or 32 ppt. We compared whole-body water and sodium ion (Na+) content, notochord length and yolk-sac volume at 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours post-transfer for each salinity treatment. We found that larvae maintained osmotic and ionic balance at 0.4-10 ppt, whereas salinities ˃10 ppt resulted in decreased water and increased whole-body Na+ content. We also found that larvae grew largest and survived the longest when reared at 5 and 10 ppt, respectively, and that yolk resorption stalled at 0.4 ppt. Finally, there were significant but small interclutch variations in responses to different salinities, with clutch accounting for

Swimming behavior of Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) smolts affects transit time, route selection and survival in complex aquatic ecosystems. Behavior quantified at the river reach and junction scale is of particular importance for route selection and predator avoidance, though few studies have developed field-based approaches for quantifying swimming behavior of juvenile migratory fishes at this fine spatial scale. Two-dimensional acoustic fish telemetry at a river junction was combined with a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model to estimate in situ emigration swimming behavior of federally-threatened juvenile Chinook salmon smolts. Fish velocity over ground was estimated from telemetry, while the hydrodynamic model supplied simultaneous, colocated water velocities, with swimming velocity defined by the vector difference of the two velocities. Resulting swimming speeds were centered around 2 body lengths/second, and included distinct behaviors of positive rheotaxis, negative rheotaxis, lateral swimming, and passive transport. Lateral movement increased during the day, and positive rheotaxis increased in response to local hydrodynamic velocities. Swim velocity estimates were sensitive to the combination of vertical shear in water velocities and vertical distribution of fish.

Using a system optimized for propagating human keratinocytes, culture of skin samples from white and green sturgeons generated epithelial cells capable of making cross-linked protein envelopes. Two distinct forms of TGM1-like mRNA were molecularly cloned from the cells of white sturgeon and detected in green sturgeon cells, accounting for their cellular envelope forming ability. The protein translated from each displayed a cluster of cysteine residues resembling the membrane anchorage region expressed in epidermal cells of teleosts and tetrapods. One of the two mRNA forms (called A) was present at considerably higher levels than the other (called B) in both species. Continuous lines of white sturgeon epidermal cells were established and characterized. Size measurements indicated that a substantial fraction of the cells became enlarged, appearing similar to squames in human epidermal keratinocyte cultures. The cultures also expressed CYP1A, a cytochrome P450 enzyme inducible by activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor 2 in fish. The cells gradually improved in growth rate over a dozen passages while retaining envelope forming ability, TGM1 expression and CYP1A inducibility. These cell lines are thus potential models for studying evolution of fish epidermis leading to terrestrial adaptation and for testing sturgeon sensitivity to environmental stresses such as pollution.

In the original online version of this article, there were some errors in the values in Table 7. The original article was corrected.

Loss of estuarine and coastal habitats worldwide has reduced nursery habitat and function for diverse fishes, including juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Underutilized off-channel habitats such as flooded rice fields and managed ponds present opportunities for improving rearing conditions and increasing habitat diversity along migratory corridors. While experiments in rice fields have shown enhanced growth rates of juvenile fishes, managed ponds are less studied. To evaluate the potential of these ponds as a nursery habitat, juvenile Chinook salmon (~ 2.8 g, 63 mm FL) were reared in cages in four contrasting locations within Suisun Marsh, a large wetland in the San Francisco Estuary. The locations included a natural tidal slough, a leveed tidal slough, and the inlet and outlet of a tidally muted managed pond established for waterfowl hunting. Fish growth rates differed significantly among locations, with the fastest growth occurring near the outlet in the managed pond. High zooplankton biomass at the managed pond outlet was the best correlate of salmon growth. Water temperatures in the managed pond were also cooler and less variable compared to sloughs, reducing thermal stress. The stress of low dissolved oxygen concentrations within the managed pond was likely mediated by high concentrations of zooplankton and favorable temperatures. Our findings suggest that muted tidal habitats in the San Francisco Estuary and elsewhere could be managed to promote growth and survival of juvenile salmon and other native fishes.

Conservation of species facing environmental change requires an understanding of interpopulation physiological variation. However, physiological data are often scarce and therefore pooled across populations and species, erasing potentially important variability between populations. Interpopulation variation in thermal physiology has been observed within the Salmonidae family, although it has not been associated with seasonally distinct migratory phenotypes (i.e., seasonal runs). To resolve whether thermal physiology is associated with life-history strategy, we acclimated four Sacramento River juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) populations (Coleman fall-run, Feather River fall-run, Feather River spring- run, and Sacramento River winter-run) exhibiting different seasonal migratory phenotypes (fall-, spring-, and winter-run), at 11, 16, and 20[degrees]C and assessed variation in growth rate, critical thermal maxima, and temperature-dependent metabolic traits. We identified population differences in the physiological parameters measured and found compelling evidence that the critically endangered and endemic Sacramento River winter-run Chinook population exhibits thermal physiology associated with its early-migration life-history strategy. Acclimation to warm temperatures limited the growth and metabolic capacity of winter-run Chinook salmon, highlighting the risk of future environmental warming to this endemic population. Key words: conservation physiology, ecophysiology, fish, thermal tolerance, metabolism, aerobic scope, climate change, Introduction The role that interpopulation variation plays in successful conservation and management of at-risk species is gaining increasing attention (Gayeski et al. 2018; Waples and Lindley 2018; Zillig et al. [...]

Extirpation of the Central Valley spring-run Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) evolutionary significant unit (ESU) from the San Joaquin River is emblematic of salmonid declines across the western seaboard of the United States. Habitat restoration and fish reintroduction efforts are ongoing, but recent telemetry studies have revealed low outmigration survival of juveniles to the ocean. Previous investigations have focused on modeling survival relative to river discharge and geographic regions, but have largely overlooked the effects of habitat variability. To evaluate the link between environmental conditions and survival of juvenile spring-run Chinook salmon, we combined high spatial resolution habitat mapping approaches with acoustic telemetry along a 150 km section of the San Joaquin River during the spring of 2019. While overall outmigration survival was low (5%), our habitat-based classification scheme described variation in survival of acoustic-tagged smolts better than other candidate models based on geography or distance. Two regional mortality sinks were evident along the longitudinal profile of the river, revealing poor survival in areas that shared warmer temperatures but that diverged in chlorophyll a, fluorescent dissolved organic matter (fDOM), turbidity, and dissolved oxygen levels. These findings demonstrate the value of integrating river habitat classification frameworks to improve our understanding of survival dynamics of imperiled fish populations. Key words: juvenile salmon, migration, habitat, survival, FLAMe La disparition locale de l'unite evolutionnaire significative (UES) du saumon chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) a migration printaniere de la vallee centrale dans la riviere San Joaquin est representative des declins de salmonides a la grandeur de la cote ouest des Etats-Unis. Si des efforts de restauration d'habitats et de reintroduction de poissons sont en cours, des etudes telemetriques recentes revelent une faible survie des juveniles lors de la devalaison vers l'ocean. Les etudes anterieures se sont axees sur la modelisation de la survie en fonction du debit et de la region geographique, mais n'ont generalement pas considere les effets de la variabilite des habitats. Afin d'evaluer le lien entre les conditions environnementales et la survie des saumons chinooks a migration printaniere juveniles, nous avons jumele des approches de cartographie d'habitats a haute resolution spatiale a la telemetrie acoustique le long d'un troncon de 150 km de la riviere San Joaquin durant le printemps 2019. Si la survie globale durant la devalaison etait faible (5 %), notre schema de classification base sur l'habitat decrit mieux les variations de la survie de saumoneaux dotes d'etiquettes acoustiques que d'autres modeles possibles bases sur la geographie ou la distance. Deux puits de mortalite regionaux sont ressortis le long du profil longitudinal de la riviere, revelant une faible survie dans des secteurs ayant en commun des temperatures elevees, mais dont les valeurs de chlorophylle a, matiere organique dissoute fluorescente (MODf), turbidite et oxygene dissous different. Ces constatations demontrent la pertinence d'integrer des cadres de classification des habitats fluviaux pour ameliorer la comprehension de la dynamique de la survie de populations de poissons menacees. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : saumon juvenile, migration, habitat, survie, FLAMe, Introduction Pacific salmon populations native to California, USA have declined throughout the last century, shifting once economically viable runs to critically low numbers (Yoshiyama et al. 1998; Katz et al. [...]

Pyrethroid and organophosphate pesticides are two of the most commonly used classes of insecticide worldwide. At sublethal concentrations, permethrin (a pyrethroid) and chlorpyrifos (an organophosphate) impact behavior in model fish species. We investigated behavioral effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of permethrin or chlorpyrifos on early larval delta smelt Hypomesus transpacificus, a Critically Endangered teleost species endemic to the San Francisco Bay Delta, California, USA. Using a photomotor behavioral assay of oscillating light and dark periods, we measured distance moved, turn angle, meander, angular velocity, rotations, thigmotaxis (time spent in the border versus center), and swim speed duration and frequency. The lowest concentrations of permethrin used in the tests (0.05 and 0.5 μg l-1) caused significant increases in distance moved at 72 and 96 h, respectively. At 48, 72, and 96 h of exposure, 5 μg l-1 of permethrin caused a hyperactive state in which the larvae significantly decreased thigmotaxis, quickly turning in short bouts of activity, characterized by significant increases in rotations and freezing events. Larvae exposed to 0.05 μg l-1 chlorpyrifos significantly increased thigmotaxis at 72 and 96 h. In response to 5 μg l-1 chlorpyrifos, larvae significantly increased velocity at 72 h exposure, and significantly increased freezing events at 96 h. Behavioral data on larval delta smelt exposed to contaminants present in their limited habitat have the potential to aid evaluations of the suitability of spawning and rearing habitats for this endangered species, thus improving conservation management strategies focused on this sensitive life stage.

Environmental change and biodiversity loss are but two of the complex challenges facing conservation practitioners and policy makers. Relevant and robust scientific knowledge is critical for providing decision-makers with the actionable evidence needed to inform conservation decisions. In the Anthropocene, science that leads to meaningful improvements in biodiversity conservation, restoration and management is desperately needed. Conservation Physiology has emerged as a discipline that is well-positioned to identify the mechanisms underpinning population declines, predict responses to environmental change and test different in situ and ex situ conservation interventions for diverse taxa and ecosystems. Here we present a consensus list of 10 priority research themes. Within each theme we identify specific research questions (100 in total), answers to which will address conservation problems and should improve the management of biological resources. The themes frame a set of research questions related to the following: (i) adaptation and phenotypic plasticity; (ii) human-induced environmental change; (iii) human-wildlife interactions; (iv) invasive species; (v) methods, biomarkers and monitoring; (vi) policy, engagement and communication; (vii) pollution; (viii) restoration actions; (ix) threatened species; and (x) urban systems. The themes and questions will hopefully guide and inspire researchers while also helping to demonstrate to practitioners and policy makers the many ways in which physiology can help to support their decisions.

Warming and hypoxia are two stressors commonly found within natural salmon redds that are likely to co-occur. Warming and hypoxia can interact physiologically, but their combined effects during fish development remain poorly studied, particularly stage-specific effects and potential carry-over effects. To test the impacts of warm water temperature and hypoxia as individual and combined developmental stressors, late fall-run Chinook salmon embryos were reared in 10 treatments from fertilization through hatching with two temperatures [10°C (ambient) and 14°C (warm)], two dissolved oxygen saturation levels [normoxia (100% air saturation, 10.4-11.4 mg O2/l) and hypoxia (50% saturation, 5.5 mg O2/l)] and three exposure times (early [eyed stage], late [silver-eyed stage] and chronic [fertilization through hatching]). After hatching, all treatments were transferred to control conditions (10°C and 100% air saturation) through the fry stage. To study stage-specific effects of stressor exposure we measured routine metabolic rate (RMR) at two embryonic stages, hatching success and growth. To evaluate carry-over effects, where conditions during one life stage influence performance in a later stage, RMR of all treatments was measured in control conditions at two post-hatch stages and acute stress tolerance was measured at the fry stage. We found evidence of stage-specific effects of both stressors during exposure and carry-over effects on physiological performance. Both individual stressors affected RMR, growth and developmental rate while multiple stressors late in development reduced hatching success. RMR post-hatch showed persistent effects of embryonic stressor exposure that may underlie differences observed in developmental timing and acute stress tolerance. The responses to stressors that varied by stage during development suggest that stage-specific management efforts could support salmon embryo survival. The persistent carry-over effects also indicate that considering sub-lethal effects of developmental stressor exposure may be important to understanding how climate change influences the performance of salmon across life stages.

Floodplains represent critical nursery habitats for a variety of fish species due to their highly productive food webs, yet few tools exist to quantify the extent to which these habitats contribute to ecosystem-level production. Here we conducted a large-scale field experiment to characterize differences in food web composition and stable isotopes (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ³⁴S) for salmon rearing on a large floodplain and adjacent river in the Central Valley, California, USA. The study covered variable hydrologic conditions including flooding (1999, 2017), average (2016), and drought (2012-2015). In addition, we determined incorporation rates and tissue fractionation between prey and muscle from fish held in enclosed locations (experimental fields, cages) at weekly intervals. Finally, we measured δ³⁴S in otoliths to test if these archival biominerals could be used to reconstruct floodplain use. Floodplain-reared salmon had a different diet composition and lower δ13C and δ³⁴S (δ¹³C = -33.02±2.66‰, δ³⁴S = -3.47±2.28‰; mean±1SD) compared to fish in the adjacent river (δ¹³C = -28.37±1.84‰, δ³⁴S = +2.23±2.25‰). These isotopic differences between habitats persisted across years of extreme droughts and floods. Despite the different diet composition, δ¹⁵N values from prey items on the floodplain (δ¹⁵N = 7.19±1.22‰) and river (δ¹⁵N = 7.25±1.46‰) were similar, suggesting similar trophic levels. The food web differences in δ13C and δ³⁴S between habitats were also reflected in salmon muscle tissue, reaching equilibrium between 24-30 days (2014, δ¹³C = -30.74±0.73‰, δ³⁴S = -4.6±0.68‰; 2016, δ¹³C = -34.74 ±0.49‰, δ³⁴S = -5.18±0.46‰). δ³⁴S measured in sequential growth bands in otoliths recorded a weekly time-series of shifting diet inputs, with the outermost layers recording time spent on the floodplain (δ³⁴S = -5.60±0.16‰) and river (δ³⁴S = 3.73±0.98‰). Our results suggest that δ¹³C and δ³⁴S can be used to differentiate floodplain and river rearing habitats used by native fishes, such as Chinook Salmon, across different hydrologic conditions and tissues. Together these stable isotope analyses provide a toolset to quantify the role of floodplains as fish habitats.

Bifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide commonly used in agricultural and urban sectors, and is found in watersheds worldwide. As a sodium channel blocker, at sublethal concentrations it causes off-target effects, including disruption of calcium signaling and neuronal growth. At the whole organism level, sublethal concentrations of bifenthrin cause behavioral effects in fish species, raising concerns about the neurotoxic properties of the compound on fish populations. Here we describe the application of a high-throughput behavioral system to evaluate contaminant impacts on the sensitive early-life stages of Delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus), a critically endangered teleost species endemic to the San Francisco Bay Delta (SFBD), California, USA. Leveraging the natural behavior of early-larval Delta smelt, whereby they increase movement in bright light and decrease movement in the dark, we developed a test using a cycle of light and dark periods in a closed chamber to test hyper- or hypoactivity for this species. We show that early-larval Delta smelt have a significant preference to move toward light, and utilized the behavioral test to evaluate the impact of exposure to bifenthrin at concentrations found in habitats where Delta smelt reportedly spawn, ranging up to concentrations detected in tributaries to these habitats. All tested concentrations of bifenthrin (nominal 2, 10, or 100 ng/L) caused hyperactivity, over a 96 h exposure, with noted significance determined during the light period of the test. To further understand the impact of bifenthrin exposure, expression of a suite of genes relevant to neurodevelopment, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, and biotransformation in exposed larvae were also measured. Following exposure to picomolar concentrations of bifenthrin, expression of genes in the mTOR signaling and neurogenesis pathways were altered alongside behavior. This study demonstrates how light and dark cycle behavioral tests can be used to assess sensitive alterations in swimming activity in Delta smelt at early developmental stages and how gene expression can complement these assays. This approach can be used to assess the impact of multiple compounds that occur within the restricted habitat of Delta smelt, thus having the potential to greatly inform conservation management strategies for this critically sensitive life stage.

As part of a restoration project designed to enhance Chinook salmon populations in the lower Yuba River, we sought to characterize river temperatures at micro-habitats scales relevant to juveniles. Given that temperatures vary more across the channel than they do longitudinally, temperature had to be assayed both along the length of a study reach as well as across the channel. These temperatures needed to be measured at least hourly in order to capture the totality of the diel fluctuations. It was necessary to sample for the full duration of juvenile residence in the lower Yuba River-a six-month period over the winter. Though it was desirable to design a system that could sample for at least a year to capture the totality of seasonal fluctuations. In this paper, we present the design, implementation and deployment of a wireless sensor network that was installed to monitor temperature data on the Lower Yuba River. The mesh network was implemented using nodes that contained a MSP430 chipset with a radio operating at 433 MHz. We describe the network architecture which included a network storage function to address intermittent link failures. We describe the event-based software architecture of the mesh network mode specifically in relation to energy optimization. We also give details of the deployment and provide measurement data.

The Sacramento splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus) is a species of special concern that is native to the San Francisco Estuary, USA. Two genetically distinct populations exist and differ in maximal salinity tolerances. We examined the expression of 12 genes representative of osmoregulatory functions in the gill over a 14  day time course at two different salinities [11 or 14 PSU (Practical Salinity Units)] and revealed that each population showed distinct patterns of gene expression consistent with population differences in response to osmotic regimes. The relatively more salinity-tolerant San Pablo population significantly upregulated nine out of the 12 transcripts investigated on day 1 of 11 PSU salinity exposure in comparison to the day zero freshwater control. Three transcripts (nka1a, nka1b, and mmp13) were differentially expressed between the populations at 7 and 14 days of salinity exposure, suggesting a reduced ability of the relatively salinity-intolerant Central Valley population to recover. Additionally, a phylogenetic analysis of several Sacramento splittail Na+/K+-ATPase α1 sequences resulted in grouping by proposed paralog rather than species, suggesting that different paralogs of this gene may exist. These findings, together with prior research conducted on the Sacramento splittail, suggest that the San Pablo population may be able to preferentially regulate select osmoregulatory genes, including different Na+/K+-ATPase α1 paralogs, to better cope with salinity challenges.

Applying physiological tools, knowledge and concepts to understand conservation problems (i.e. conservation physiology) has become commonplace and confers an ability to understand mechanistic processes, develop predictive models and identify cause-and-effect relationships. Conservation physiology is making contributions to conservation solutions; the number of 'success stories' is growing, but there remain unexplored opportunities for which conservation physiology shows immense promise and has the potential to contribute to major advances in protecting and restoring biodiversity. Here, we consider how conservation physiology has evolved with a focus on reframing the discipline to be more inclusive and integrative. Using a 'horizon scan', we further explore ways in which conservation physiology can be more relevant to pressing conservation issues of today (e.g. addressing the Sustainable Development Goals; delivering science to support the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration), as well as more forward-looking to inform emerging issues and policies for tomorrow. Our horizon scan provides evidence that, as the discipline of conservation physiology continues to mature, it provides a wealth of opportunities to promote integration, inclusivity and forward-thinking goals that contribute to achieving conservation gains. To advance environmental management and ecosystem restoration, we need to ensure that the underlying science (such as that generated by conservation physiology) is relevant with accompanying messaging that is straightforward and accessible to end users.

The Sacramento splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus) is composed of two genetically distinct populations endemic to the San Francisco Estuary (SFE). The allopatric upstream spawning habitat of the Central Valley (CV) population connects with the sympatric rearing grounds via relatively low salinity waters, whereas the San Pablo (SP) population must pass through the relatively high-salinity Upper SFE to reach its allopatric downstream spawning habitat. We hypothesize that if migration through SFE salinities to SP spawning grounds is more challenging for adult CV than SP splittail, then salinity tolerance, osmoregulatory capacity, and metabolic responses to salinity will differ between populations. Osmoregulatory disturbances, assessed by measuring plasma osmolality and ions, muscle moisture and Na+-K+-ATPase activity after 168 to 336 h at 11‰ salinity, showed evidence for a more robust osmoregulatory capacity in adult SP relative to CV splittail. While both resting and maximum metabolic rates were elevated in SP splittail in response to increased salinity, CV splittail metabolic rates were unaffected by salinity. Further, the calculated difference between resting and maximum metabolic values, aerobic scope, did not differ significantly between populations. Therefore, improved osmoregulation came at a metabolic cost for SP splittail but was not associated with negative impacts on scope for aerobic metabolism. These results suggest that SP splittail may be physiologically adjusted to allow for migration through higher-salinity waters. The trends in interpopulation variation in osmoregulatory and metabolic responses to salinity exposures support our hypothesis of greater salinity-related challenges to adult CV than SP splittail migration and are consistent with our previous findings for juvenile splittail populations, further supporting our recommendation of population-specific management.

Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are increasingly vulnerable to anthropogenic activities and climate change, especially at their most southern species range in California’s Central Valley. There is considerable interest in understanding stressors that contribute to population decline and in identifying management actions that reduce the impacts of those stressors. Along the west coast of North America, disease has been linked to declining numbers of salmonids and identified as a key stressor resulting in mortality. In the Central Valley, targeted studies have revealed extremely high prevalence of infectious agents and disease. However, there has been insufficient monitoring to understand the effect that disease may have on salmon populations. In order to inform future research, monitoring, and management efforts, a two-day workshop on salmon disease was held at UC Davis on March 14-15, 2018. This paper summarizes the science presented at this workshop, including the current state of knowledge of salmonid disease in the Central Valley and current and emerging tools to better understand its impacts on salmon. We highlight case studies from other systems where successful monitoring programs have been implemented. First, in the Klamath River where the integration of several data collection and modeling approaches led to the development of successful management actions, and second in British Columbia where investment in researching novel technologies led to breakthroughs in the understanding of salmon disease dynamics. Finally, we identify key information and knowledge gaps necessary to guide research and management of disease in Central Valley salmon populations.

The effects of water temperature on individual and group movement behaviour in prey fish can affect ecological interactions such as competition and predation, but how variability in temperature influence fish behaviour is less understood. Of particular concern is how increased warming in tidally fluctuating estuaries may impact the native and endangered delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus, Osmeridae). To help address this issue, we tested the effects of increased water temperature (fluctuating [17–21°C] and warm [21°C] acclimated treatments) on juvenile delta smelt individual and group behaviour, response to chemical alarm and predator cues, as well as capacity to evade predation. In addition, predation of delta smelt was tested in the presence of a dominant invasive competitor, Mississippi silversides (Menidia beryllina, Atherinopsidae), as well as comparative predation mortality on Mississippi silversides when isolated. After 7 days of increased temperature treatments, delta smelt in the warm treatment increased swimming velocity, decreased turning angle, and altered group structure with larger inter-individual distances compared to fish in the control (17°C) and fluctuating temperature treatments. Following conspecific and predator chemical alarm cues, delta smelt showed anti-predator responses. Control and fluctuating treatment fish responded to conspecific cues with increased swimming speeds, decreased inter-individual distances and near-neighbour distances, and, after 15 min, fish recovered back to baseline behaviours. In contrast, fish in the warm treatment had not recovered after 15 min, and swimming speeds were maintained at roughly 25 cm/s, close to maximum capabilities. Fish in control and fluctuating treatments showed minimal responses to predator cues, whereas delta smelt exposed to warm conditions significantly increased swimming speeds and decreased turning angle. Predation of delta smelt by largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides, Centrarchidae) was greatest under the warm treatment, correlating with altered behaviours of delta smelt; however, predation of Mississippi silversides was greater than delta smelt, independent of temperature. This study provides novel insight into the group behaviour of delta smelt, their response to predation, and how prolonged exposure to elevated temperature may induce negative individual and group behaviours causing alterations in predator–prey dynamics. This work highlights the importance of testing ecologically realistic temperature fluctuations in experiments as delta smelt had significantly altered responses to elevated temperature, dependent on variability of warming.

Delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) is a critically endangered species endemic to the San Francisco Bay Delta (SFBD). Important for the conservation of this species is understanding the physiological and ecological impacts contributing to their population decline, and current studies lack information on embryonic development. Changes in patterns of salinity across the SFBD may be a particularly important environmental stressor contributing to the recruitment and survival of the species. Throughout their ontogeny, delta smelt may exhibit unique requirements and tolerances to environmental conditions including salinity. Here, we describe 22 stages of embryonic development of H. transpacificus that characterize early differentiation from the fertilized egg until hatching, allowing the identification of critical morphological features unique to this species. Additionally, we investigated aspects of physiological tolerance to environmental salinity during development. Embryos survived incubation at salinity treatments between 0.4 and 20 ppt, yet had lower hatch success at higher salinities. Prior to hatching, embryos exposed to higher salinities had increased osmolalities and reduced fractions of yolk implying that the elevated external salinity altered the physiology of the embryo and the environment internal to the chorion. Lastly, egg activation and fertilization appear to also be impacted by salinity. Altogether, we suggest that any potential tolerance to salinity during embryogenesis, a common feature in euryhaline teleost species, impacts life cycle transitions into, and out of, embryonic development. Results from this investigation should improve conservation and management practices of this species and further expand our understanding of the intimate relationship between an embryo and its environment.

Innovative telemetry and biologging technology has increased the amount of available movement data on aquatic species. However, real-time information on the environmental factors influencing animal movements can be logistically challenging to obtain, particularly in habitats where tides and currents vary locally. Hydrodynamic models are capable of simulating complex tidal flow, and may thus offer an alternative method of contextualizing animal movement in coastal habitats. Here we use this tool to examine the influence of tide on the movement of broadnose sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus) in the San Francisco Bay estuary. Three sharks were actively tracked using acoustic transmitters for 3 to 4 days. We then generated a hydrodynamic model of the estuary and calculated current vectors along each track. We hypothesized that the sharks would adjust their swimming speed and direction depending on current strength when passing through the channel underneath the Golden Gate Bridge. Our results indicate that sharks did tend to follow the current flow in the channel, but their overall displacement did not significantly correlate with tidal amplitude. We conclude that the sharks may respond to environmental factors other than tidal flow, altering their movement at a finer scale than initially considered. Overall, this suggests that hydrodynamic simulation models can be used to visualize and quantify environmental factors that may affect movement patterns in aquatic organisms. We recommend future studies combine these models with other biologging techniques to measure energy expenditure at a finer spatial scale.

Southern distinct population segment (sDPS) juvenile Green Sturgeon are thought to rear in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta for two to four years. The southern population segment has been listed as “threatened” under the Endangered Species Act. Habitat loss is cited as a significant driver in declines of the population. Specific to juvenile rearing, much of the historic floodplain habitat has been lost and replaced by leveed channelized waterways. In addition to geomorphic alterations, other direct and indirect activities such as water export, dredging, and the introduction of invasive species may have significant impacts to the viability of the species. The objective of this tracking study was to provide a first of its kind look at the movements and behaviors of wild caught juvenile Green Sturgeon within the putative nursery grounds of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. We acoustically tagged and continuously tracked six yearling juvenile Green Sturgeon with mean total length (TL) of 50.6 cm (SD = 5.3) and mean mass of 563.3 g (SD = 151.7). We performed continuous mobile tracking for a period of up to five days per individual while recording GPS coordinates, depths, and water temperature at the sturgeon’s location. We used first-passage times, defined as the amount of time spent within a given area, for which a radius was determined post hoc. First passage times were used as a metric for parsing bouts of localized movements from directed movements. Our results indicate that juvenile Green Sturgeon largely oriented at or near the bottom. Depths utilized by all sturgeon ranged from >3 m to 20 m across all tracks. Individuals exhibited fidelity to the San Joaquin River Channel with only one individual leaving the main channel. Juvenile green sturgeon were shown to exhibit both positive and negative rheotaxis during sustained directed movements under independent ebb tidal cycles. This study provides the first detailed examination into the early life movements and behaviors of a rare species within their putative nursery grounds.

In estuary and coastal systems, human demand for freshwater, climate change-driven precipitation variability, and extreme weather impact salinity levels, reducing connectivity between mesohaline coastal fish populations and potentially contributing to genomic divergence. We examined gill transcriptome responses to salinity in wild-caught juveniles from two populations of Sacramento splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus), a species of conservation concern that is endemic to the San Francisco Estuary, USA, and the lower reaches of its tributaries. Recent extreme droughts have led to salinities above the tolerance limits for this species, creating a migration barrier between these populations, which potentially contributed to population divergence. We identified transcripts involved in a conserved response to salinity; however, the more salinity-tolerant San Pablo population had greater transcriptome plasticity (3.6-fold more transcripts responded than the Central Valley population) and a response consistent with gill remodeling after 168 hr of exposure to elevated salinity. The reorganization of the gill in response to changing osmotic gradients is a process critical for acclimation and would facilitate enhanced salinity tolerance. We detected an upregulation of receptors that control the Wnt (wingless-type) cell signaling pathway that may be required for an adaptive response to increases in salinity, patterns not observed in the relatively salinity-sensitive Central Valley population. We detected 62 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in coding regions of 26 transcripts that differed between the populations. Eight transcripts that contained SNPs were associated with immune responses, highlighting the importance of diversity in immune gene sequences as a defining characteristic of genomic divergence between these populations. Our data demonstrate that these populations have divergent transcriptomic responses to salinity, which is consistent with observed physiological differences in salinity tolerance.

In highly regulated systems, like large dammed rivers, conservation legislation requires that systems are managed, in part, to avoid adverse impacts on endangered species. However, multiple endangered species can occur in the same system, and management actions that benefit one species may be detrimental to another species. The current water management strategies in the Sacramento River basin are an example of this conflict. Cold-water releases from Shasta Reservoir during the summer and fall months are aimed at protecting Sacramento River winter-run Chinook (SRWRC) salmon by providing suitable incubation temperatures for their eggs. However, the effects of these regulated water temperature releases on another threatened species, green sturgeon, are less well understood. In this study, we applied a simplified dynamic energy budget (DEB) model (aka DEBkiss) to explore the effect of food limitation and water temperature on the growth rates of green sturgeon. This model captures these effects and able to predict the growth of green sturgeon at different food levels and temperature conditions. We then linked the DEB model with a physically‐based water temperature model. We applied the DEB - water temperature linked model for green sturgeon along with a temperature-dependent egg to fry survival model for SRWRC salmon to quantify the consequences of managing water temperatures to improve salmon eggs survival on the growth rate of green sturgeon. We found that mean temperature-dependent egg-to-fry survival of salmon increased across a modeled environmental gradient from critically dry to wet water year types, while the fractional growth rate of juvenile green sturgeon showed the opposite trend, and decreased as water years transitioned from dry to wet conditions. We also found a non-linear negative correlation between temperature-dependent mean growth rate of green sturgeon and mean temperature-dependent egg-to-fry survival of salmon, which indicated there is a river temperature related trade-off between early growth rate of green sturgeon and embryonic stage survival of salmon. However, the relatively small gains in the growth rate of green sturgeon achieved in years when temperature criteria for SRWRC salmon eggs were not met came at the cost of large reduction in temperature-dependent egg-to-fry survival of salmon. Thus, we concluded the current Sacramento River water-temperature management for the eggs of the endangered SRWRC salmon eggs have a relatively small impact on the growth rate of green sturgeon.

Acoustic telemetry, a commonly used tool for examining movements and survival of aquatic species, is often applied without a comprehensive understanding of transmitter implantation effects. This can be problematic when the goal of the study is to use telemetry results to make inferences regarding broader populations. Here, we examined juvenile Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha at varying time intervals after transmitter implantation to assess the behavioral implications of tagging. The following behavioral metrics in response to a novel environment were compared across treatment and control groups: time to emergence from shelter into the open portion of the test arena, rheotactic response, total activity, and rates of exploration. Tagged fish (114–132 mm FL) were tested at 0, 1, or 4 d postsurgery (day-0, day-1, and day-4 groups, respectively), and their behavior was compared to that of similarly handled control fish. Emergence from refuge was the only metric that differed significantly between treatment and control groups. Fish tested on the same day as the surgery were less likely to emerge from the refuge, with only 46% of the day-0 tagged fish emerging compared to 88, 93, and 80% of the day-1, day-4, and control groups, respectively. However, day-0 fish that did emerge from the refuge had rheotactic responses, total activity, and exploration rates similar to those of fish from the other treatment and control groups. This study may have fisheries research and management implications, especially for telemetry studies and monitoring efforts. We encourage researchers using this technology to consider (1) observing a post-transmitter-implantation recovery period of at least 24 h prior to release, adjusting study plans and logistics accordingly; (2) applying sufficient scientific rigor to emerging tagging technology prior to wide-scale adoption; and (3) when possible, conducting concurrent battery life and tag effects studies with any field release of tagged fishes, as differing relationships between fish size, tag size, and tagging techniques may yield variable results.

Limited food availability and altered thermal regimes (e.g. cold water releases from dams) are two common stressors threatening the persistence of fishes inhabiting anthropogenically disturbed freshwater systems. Yet, the combined effects of these stressors remain poorly characterised. To remedy this, we examined the isolated and combined effects of low temperature exposure and food restriction on specific growth rate (SGR, % body mass/day) and upper thermal tolerance (critical thermal maxima, CTMax) in larval white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus [Acipenseridae], 32 days post-hatch, body mass: 0.25 ± 0.03 g, mean ± standard deviation). A 2 × 2 factorial design was implemented with fish exposed to one of two ecologically-relevant acclimation temperatures (cold exposure: 11°C or a control temperature: 18°C) and one of two food restriction treatments designed to emulate observed declines in food availability (100% or 40% optimal feed rate) for 6 weeks (N: 3 replicate tanks/treatment, 50 fish/tank). Specific growth rate was affected by both low temperature exposure and food restriction in isolation; low temperature exposure reduced SGR by 56.5% and food restriction reduced SGR by 30.6%. Simultaneous exposure to low temperature and food restriction resulted in a greater but less than additive reduction in SGR (80.6%), indicating that the stressors interacted antagonistically. Critical thermal maxima were c. 2°C higher in 18°C-acclimated fish (CTMax = 30.7 ± 0.4°C, mean ± standard error) compared to 11°C-acclimated fish (CTMax = 28.6 ± 0.2°C, mean ± standard error); however, CTMax was independent of food restriction in both 11°C- and 18°C-acclimated fish. These data highlight the unpredictability of stressor interactions and may guide holistic conservation strategies, which target co-occurring stressors in freshwater habitats.

Early life stages of salmonids are particularly vulnerable to warming and hypoxia, which are common stressors in hyporheic, gravel bed, rearing habitat (i.e. a 'redd'). With the progression of global climate change, high temperatures and hypoxia may co-occur more frequently within redds, particularly for salmonid species at their southern range limit. Warming and hypoxia have competing effects on energy supply and demand, which can be detrimental to energy-limited early life stages. We examined how elevated temperature and hypoxia as individual and combined stressors affected the survival, physiological performance, growth, and development of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). We reared late fall-run Chinook salmon from fertilization to the fry stage in a fully factorial design of two temperatures [10°C (ambient) and 14°C (warm)] and two oxygen levels [normoxia (100% air saturation, 10 mg O2/l) and hypoxia (50% saturation, 5.5 mg O2/l)]. Rearing in hypoxia significantly reduced hatching success, especially in combination with warming. Both warming and hypoxia improved acute thermal tolerance. While rearing in hypoxia improved tolerance to acute hypoxia stress, warming reduced hypoxia tolerance. Hypoxia-reared fish were smaller at hatch, but were able to reach similar sizes to the normoxia-reared fish by the fry stage. High temperature and normoxia resulted in the fastest rate of development while low temperature and hypoxia resulted in the slowest rate of development. Despite improved physiological tolerance to acute heat and hypoxia stress, hypoxia-reared embryos had reduced survival and growth, which could have larger population-level effects. These results suggest that both warming and hypoxia are important factors to address in conservation strategies for Chinook salmon.

Reversing global declines in the abundance and diversity of fishes is dependent on science-based conservation solutions. A wealth of data exist on the ecophysiological constraints of many fishes, but much of this information is underutilized in recovery plans due to a lack of synthesis. Here, we used the imperiled green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) as an example of how a quantitative synthesis of physiological data can inform conservation plans, identify knowledge gaps and direct future research actions. We reviewed and extracted metadata from peer-reviewed papers on green sturgeon. A total of 105 publications were identified, spanning multiple disciplines, with the primary focus being conservation physiology (23.8%). A meta-analytical approach was chosen to summarize the mean effects of prominent stressors (elevated temperatures, salinity, low food availability and contaminants) on several physiological traits (growth, thermal tolerance, swimming performance and heat shock protein expression). All examined stressors significantly impaired green sturgeon growth, and additional stressor-specific costs were documented. These findings were then used to suggest several management actions, such as mitigating salt intrusion in nursery habitats and maintaining water temperatures within optimal ranges during peak spawning periods. Key data gaps were also identified; research efforts have been biased towards juvenile (38.1%) and adult (35.2%) life-history stages, and less data are available for early life-history stages (embryonic, 11.4%; yolk-sac larvae, 12.4%; and post yolk-sac larvae, 16.2%). Similarly, most data were collected from single-stressor studies (91.4%) and there is an urgent need to understand interactions among stressors as anthropogenic change is multi-variate and dynamic. Collectively, these findings provide an example of how meta-analytic reviews are a powerful tool to inform management actions, with the end goal of maximizing conservation gains from research efforts.

Sea-level rise, drought and water diversion can all lead to rapid salinization of freshwater habitats, especially in coastal areas. Increased water salinities can in turn alter the geographic distribution and ecology of freshwater species including turtles. The physiological consequences of salinization for freshwater turtles, however, are poorly known. Here, we compared the osmoregulatory response of two geographically separate populations of the freshwater Western Pond Turtle (Actinemys marmorata)-a species declining across its range in western North America-to three constant salinities: 0.4 ppt, 10 ppt and 15 ppt over 2 weeks. We found that turtles from a coastal estuarine marsh population regulated their plasma osmolality at lower levels than their conspecifics from an inland freshwater creek population 45 km away. Plasma osmolalities were consistently lower in estuarine marsh turtles than the freshwater creek turtles over the entire 2-week exposure to 10 ppt and 15 ppt water. Furthermore, estuarine marsh turtles maintained plasma osmolalities within 1 SD of their mean field osmolalities over the 2-week exposure, whereas freshwater creek turtles exceeded their field values within the first few days after exposure to elevated salinities. However, individuals from both populations exhibited body mass loss in 15 ppt water, with significantly greater loss in estuarine turtles. We speculate that the greater ability to osmoregulate by the estuarine marsh turtles may be explained by their reduced feeding and drinking in elevated salinities that was not exhibited by the freshwater creek population. However, due to mass loss in both populations, physiological and behavioural responses exhibited by estuarine marsh turtles may only be effective adaptations for short-term exposures to elevated salinities, such as those from tides and when traversing saline habitats, and are unlikely to be effective for long-term exposure to elevated salinity as is expected under sea-level rise.

In many aquatic systems, native fishes are in decline and the factors responsible are often elusive. In the San Francisco Estuary (SFE) in California, interactions among native and non-native species are key factors contributing to the decline in abundance of endemic, endangered Delta Smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus). Climate change and drought-related stressors are further exacerbating declines. To assess how multiple environmental changes affect the physiology of native Delta Smelt and non-native Mississippi Silverside (Menidia beryllina) and Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides), fishes were exposed to serial exposures of a single stressor (elevated temperature or salinity) followed by two stressors (elevated temperature and salinity) to determine how a single stressor affects the capacity to cope with the addition of a second stressor. Critical thermal maximum (CTMax; a measure of upper temperature tolerance) was determined after 0, 2, 4 and 7 days following single and multiple stressors of elevated temperature (16°C vs. 20°C) and salinity (2.4 vs. 8-12 ppt, depending on species). Under control conditions, non-native fishes had significantly higher CTMax than the native Delta Smelt. An initial temperature or salinity stressor did not negatively affect the ability of any species to tolerate a subsequent multiple stressor. While elevated salinity had little effect on CTMax, a 4°C increase in temperature increased CTMax. Bass experienced an additive effect of increased temperature and salinity on CTMax, such that CTMax further increased under multiple stressors. In addition, Bass demonstrated physiological sensitivity to multiple stressors demonstrated by changes in hematocrit and plasma osmolality, whereas the physiology of Silversides remained unaffected. Non-native Bass and Mississippi Silversides showed consistently higher thermal tolerance limits than the native Delta Smelt, supporting their abundance in warmer SFE habitats. Continued increases in SFE water temperatures predicted with climate change may further impact endangered Delta Smelt populations directly if habitat temperatures exceed thermal limits.

Human-induced thermal variability can disrupt energy balance and performance in ectotherms; however, phenotypic plasticity may play a pivotal protective role. Ectotherm performance can be maintained in thermally heterogeneous habitats by reducing the thermal sensitivity of physiological processes and concomitant performance. We examined the capacity of juvenile green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) to respond to daily thermal variation. Juveniles (47 days post-hatch) were exposed to either stable (15 ± 0.5 °C) or variable (narrowly variable: 13-17 °C day-1 or widely variable 11-21 °C day-1) thermoperiod treatments, with equivalent mean temperatures (15 ± 0.5 °C), for 21 days. Growth (relative growth rate, % body mass gain), upper thermal tolerance (critical thermal maxima, CTMax) and the thermal sensitivity of swimming performance (critical swimming speed, Ucrit) were assessed in fish from all treatments. Accelerated growth was observed in fish maintained under widely variable temperatures compared to narrowly variable and stable temperatures. No significant variation in CTMax was observed among thermoperiod treatments, suggesting all treatment groups acclimated to the mean temperature rather than daily maximums. The widely variable treatment induced a plastic response in swimming performance, where Ucrit was insensitive to temperature and performance was maintained across a widened thermal breadth. Maximum Ucrit attained was similar among thermoperiod treatments, but performance was maximised at different test temperatures (stable: 4.62 ± 0.44 BL s-1 at 15 °C; narrowly variable: 4.52 ± 0.23 BL s-1 at 21 °C; widely variable: 3.90 ± 0.24 BL s-1 at 11 °C, mean ± s.e.m.). In combination, these findings suggest juvenile A. medirostris are resilient to daily fluctuations in temperature, within the temperature range tested here.

Increases in atmospheric CO2 levels and associated ocean changes are expected to have dramatic impacts on marine ecosystems. Although the Southern Ocean is experiencing some of the fastest rates of change, few studies have explored how Antarctic fishes may be affected by co-occurring ocean changes, and even fewer have examined early life stages. To date, no studies have characterized potential trade-offs in physiology and behavior in response to projected multiple climate change stressors (ocean acidification and warming) on Antarctic fishes. We exposed juvenile emerald rockcod Trematomus bernacchii to three PCO2 treatments (~450, ~850, and ~1,200 μatm PCO2 ) at two temperatures (-1 or 2°C). After 2, 7, 14, and 28 days, metrics of physiological performance including cardiorespiratory function (heart rate [fH ] and ventilation rate [fV ]), metabolic rate (M˙O2), and cellular enzyme activity were measured. Behavioral responses, including scototaxis, activity, exploration, and escape response were assessed after 7 and 14 days. Elevated PCO2 independently had little impact on either physiology or behavior in juvenile rockcod, whereas warming resulted in significant changes across acclimation time. After 14 days, fH , fV and M˙O2 significantly increased with warming, but not with elevated PCO2 . Increased physiological costs were accompanied by behavioral alterations including increased dark zone preference up to 14%, reduced activity by 12%, as well as reduced escape time suggesting potential trade-offs in energetics. After 28 days, juvenile rockcod demonstrated a degree of temperature compensation as fV , M˙O2, and cellular metabolism significantly decreased following the peak at 14 days; however, temperature compensation was only evident in the absence of elevated PCO2 . Sustained increases in fV and M˙O2 after 28 days exposure to elevated PCO2 indicate additive (fV ) and synergistic (M˙O2) interactions occurred in combination with warming. Stressor-induced energetic trade-offs in physiology and behavior may be an important mechanism leading to vulnerability of Antarctic fishes to future ocean change.

There is growing recognition of the need to understand the mechanisms underlying organismal resilience (i.e. tolerance, acclimatization) to environmental change to support the conservation management of sensitive and economically important species. Here, we discuss how functional genomics can be used in conservation biology to provide a cellular-level understanding of organismal responses to environmental conditions. In particular, the integration of transcriptomics with physiological and ecological research is increasingly playing an important role in identifying functional physiological thresholds predictive of compensatory responses and detrimental outcomes, transforming the way we can study issues in conservation biology. Notably, with technological advances in RNA sequencing, transcriptome-wide approaches can now be applied to species where no prior genomic sequence information is available to develop species-specific tools and investigate sublethal impacts that can contribute to population declines over generations and undermine prospects for long-term conservation success. Here, we examine the use of transcriptomics as a means of determining organismal responses to environmental stressors and use key study examples of conservation concern in fishes to highlight the added value of transcriptome-wide data to the identification of functional response pathways. Finally, we discuss the gaps between the core science and policy frameworks and how thresholds identified through transcriptomic evaluations provide evidence that can be more readily used by resource managers.

Exploiting species-specific behavioural responses of fish to light is an increasingly promising technique to reduce the entrainment or impingement of fish that results from the diversion of water for human activities, such as hydropower or irrigation. Whilst there is some evidence that white light can be an effective deterrent for Chinook salmon smolts, the results have been mixed. There is a need to test the response of fish to different spectra and strobing frequencies to improve deterrent performance. We tested the movement and spatial response of groups of four fish to combinations of light-emitting diode (LED) spectra (red, green, blue and white light) during the day and night, and strobing frequencies (constant and 2Hz) during the day, using innovative LED technology intended as a behavioural guidance device for use in the field. Whilst strobing did not alter fish behaviour when compared to constant light, the red light had a repulsive effect during the day, with fish under this treatment spending significantly less time in the half of the arena closest to the behavioural guidance device compared to both the control and blue light. Importantly, this effect disappeared at night, where there were no differences in movement and space use found between spectra. There was some evidence of a potential attractive response of fish to the blue and green light during the day. Under these light treatments, fish spent the highest amount of time closest to the behavioural guidance device. Further tests manipulating the light intensity in the different spectra are needed to verify the mechanistic determinants of the observed behaviours. Results are discussed in reference to the known spectral sensitivities of the cone and rod photopigments in these fish, and further experiments are suggested to better relate the work to mitigating the effects on fish of infrastructure used for hydropower and irrigation.