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Brazil hosts a large amount of freshwater. Knowing how this stored water is partitioned in space and time between surface and subsurface components is a crucial step towards a more correct depiction of the country’s water cycle, which has major implications for decision making related to water resources management. Here, we extracted monthly water storage (WS) variability, from 2003 to 2020, based on multiple state-of-the-art datasets representing different WS components – groundwater (GW), soil moisture (SM), surface waters (SW), and artificial reservoirs (RS) – in all Brazilian Hydrographic Regions (BHRs), and computed each component’s contribution to the total variability. Most of the variability can be attributed to SM (40-68%), followed by GW (18-40%). SW has great influence in the north-western BHRs (humid monsoon influenced) with 18-40% and the southern BHRs (subtropical system influenced) with 5-10%. RS has important contributions in the Paraná with 12.1%, São Francisco with 3.5%, and Tocantins-Araguaia with 2.1%. In terms of long-term variability, water storages have been generally decreasing in the eastern and increasing in north-western and southern BHRs, with GW and RS being the most affected, although it can also be observed in SW peaks. Comparisons made with previous studies show that the approach and datasets used can have a considerable impact in the results. Such analysis can have broad implications in identifying the nature of amplitude and phase variability across regions in order to better characterize them and to obtain better evaluations of hydrological trends under a changing environment.

Mapping flood risk areas is important for disaster management at the local, regional, and national scales. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of large-scale models to obtain flood hazard maps. The models were compared to the estimates developed by the Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) for different return periods (RP). The floods were evaluated for the municipalities of Uruguaiana, Montenegro and São Sebastião do Caí in the Rio Grande do Sul state. It was shown that the flood mapping generated by MGB covers larger areas (greater than 1000 km2; Siqueira et al. 2018), with a lower cost of obtaining for large scales. The-Hit Rate of the regional and continental MGB model versions with the CPRM maps ranged from about 40% to 90% in different cities, and the Hit Rate between the regional model and the CPRM map increased with the increased return period floods. The continental model compatibility was similar for all analyzed RPs. Our results suggest the agreement in terms of Hit Rate of current large-scale hydrological-hydrodynamic models to assess flood hazard.

Hydrological models are useful tools for water resources studies, yet their calibration is still a challenge, especially if aiming at improved estimates of multiple components of the water cycle. This has led the hydrologic community to look for ways to constrain models with multiple variables. Remote sensing estimates of soil moisture are very promising in this sense, especially in large areas for which field observations may be unevenly distributed. However, the use of such data to calibrate hydrological models in a synergistic way is still not well understood, especially in tropical humid areas such as those found in South America. Here, we perform multiple scenarios of multiobjective model optimization with in situ discharge and the SMOS L4 root zone soil moisture product for the Upper Paraná River Basin in South America (drainage area > 900,000 km²), for which discharge data for 136 river gauges are used. An additional scenario is used to compare the relative impacts of using all river gauges and a small subset containing nine gauges only. Across the basin, the joint calibration (CAL-DS) using discharge and soil moisture leads to improved precision and accuracy for both variables. The discharges estimated by CAL-DS (median KGE improvement for discharge was 0.14) are as accurate as those obtained with the calibration with discharge only (median equal to 0.14), while the CAL-DS soil moisture retrieval is practically as accurate (median KGE improvement for soil moisture was 0.11) as that estimated using the calibration with soil moisture only (median equal to 0.13). Nonetheless, the individual calibration with discharge rates is not able to retrieve satisfactory soil moisture estimates, and vice versa. These results show the complementarity between these two variables in the model calibration and highlight the benefits of considering multiple variables in the calibration framework. It is also shown that, by considering only nine gauges instead of 136 in the model