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It is well known that children who grow up in at-risk families tend to have more behavioral problems; however, few studies have addressed this issue from a parenting competencies framework. This investigation analyzed the relation between parenting competencies and children's externalizing problems. A total of 562 caregivers from at-risk families were assessed through the Interview for the Assessment of Parenting Competencies and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The three competencies in which the families presented more difficulties were parental co-responsibility, child stimulation and family life structuring, and emotional self-regulation. According to the hierarchical regression, the capacity to offer warmth and to establish a healthy communication could explain children's behavioral difficulties. Family interventions should focus on those competencies where families tend to have more difficulties. Furthermore, to prevent and/or reduce externalizing problems, it is convenient to foster, particularly, communication and warmth among their members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the effectiveness of Safe@Home, an in-home intervention to (1) prevent out-of-home placement for children at imminent risk of placement, and (2) minimize time in out-of-home care for children already in foster care. Using Coarsened Exact Matching, children who received Safe@Home were matched to a comparison group of children served before Safe@Home was available in their community. All children were determined by the child welfare agency to be unsafe and in need of immediate intervention. The matched samples (Safe@Home n = 510, Comparison n = 851) showed strong baseline equivalence on child age, race/ethnicity, previous history of child welfare involvement, and safety threats. Children who received Safe@Home experienced lower rate of out-of-home placements, higher rate of permanency with a parent (sustained for 12 months after the end of Safe@Home), fewer days in out-of-home care, and shorter time to case closure relative to children who received treatment as usual. There was no effect of Safe@Home on post-permanency outcomes of maltreatment and entry or re-entry after case closure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child maltreatment crosses all socioeconomic, ethnic, religious, and educational boundaries; however, studies focusing on demographic characteristics of these children in Greece are scarce. Despite recent effort there is no national registry and the response system remains fragmented. Since the existing response system often includes hospital admission, this study aims to describe the characteristics of children up to 16 years of age with suspected maltreatment admitted to a tertiary children's hospital in Greece, as well as to describe the case management procedure and to calculate the length and baseline cost of hospitalization for this population of children. The socioeconomic factor most often recorded in the study participants was parental unemployment within the nuclear family structure. The main reason for referral to Social Services was neglect. The mean hospitalization duration was 28.5 days. The most frequent outcome was discharge to parental home under Social Services' supervision. The analysis of associations between gender, age, residence status and the referral reasons showed significant differences. Quantitative and qualitative descriptors of children with suspected maltreatment offer potential insights on the social determinants of health. Our findings have the potential of offering assistance to future interventions that aim to develop effective system responses and preventive strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data-driven decision-making (DDDM) in public child welfare (PCW) has become increasingly important with the passage of the Family First Prevention Services Act (FFPSA), making PCW agencies across the U.S. examine their various programs to ensure that they meet the service requirements of FFPSA. Family Preservation (FP) is an important program that is offered by PCW agencies nationwide, yet little is known about how programs like FP can implement DDDM to examine outcomes to improve practice. This study describes how one of the largest PCW agencies nationwide adopted DDDM in their FP program and presents preliminary findings along with lessons learned as part of the process to meet FFPSA requirements. For example, FP established a baseline recurrence rate using the standard federal definition of the recurrence of maltreatment adapted for FP; this rate was 6.6% for families receiving FP in the target county compared to 8.4% for families not receiving FP services. Subsequent case reviews revealed issues related to engagement, family expectations, and termination codes, which led to standardized definitions and practice changes. Several lessons learned are provided as part of the incorporation of DDDM in FP as well as implications for practice and research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Public health nurse home visiting is a promising approach for addressing the complex needs of families at risk of child maltreatment. The Colorado Nurse Support Program advances service provision by using evidence-based practices to provide tailored assessment and intervention to low-income, primiparous, and multiparous families with children under 18 years of age identified as high risk by county human service systems. Objectives: This study aimed to test the effects of the Nurse Support Program on child protective services case characteristics between Nurse Support Program families and a demographically comparable reference group of families and evaluate changes in parenting outcomes from pre- to postprogram involvement for Nurse Support Program families. Methods: We used a matched comparison group quasi-experimental design in which families in the Nurse Support Program (n = 48) were compared to families (n = 150) who were identified using administrative data from Colorado's Comprehensive Child Welfare Information System. Outcomes were child protective case characteristics (child protection referrals, open assessments, founded assessments, open cases, and children's placement in out-of-home care) and parenting outcomes. Results: Nurse Support Program families were less likely to have a child protection case opened or have their child placed in out-of-home care. There were no significant between-group differences in child protection referrals, open assessments, or founded assessments. Families in the Nurse Support Program showed improvements in parenting outcomes over time. Discussion: Findings suggest that the Nurse Support Program is a successful public health nurse home-visiting approach to promote positive parenting and family preservation among families with complex needs. Implementing tailored public health nurse home-visiting programs, such as the Nurse Support Program, should continue to be evaluated and supported to mitigate the public health risk of child maltreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined kinship care arrangements of older persons in a South African Muslim community. The aim was to understand kinship care in this community in the context of culturally sensitive welfare services delivery. Using a Grounded Theory approach, older persons and their caregivers living in intergenerational households were interviewed about their living and care arrangements. A societal context of family life in circumstances of a socio-historical legacy of colonialism and apartheid formed the backdrop of the research. Religion and the country's poor socio-economic conditions emerged as important drivers of kinship care. Family preservation and survival, constructed through maintaining intergenerational living, reciprocity and mutual support, and the authoritative status of the older persons in the home, characterised this environment. Kinship care was a means of fulfilling a religious duty and living in accordance with an Islamic life. However, these arrangements occurred both in support and at the expense of the older persons. Kinship care arrangements are replicated globally in both Muslim majority countries and where Muslims live as minorities in secular societies; they are not static and are influenced by societal conditions that can impact on the lives of older persons. These findings thus have relevance for Muslim communities generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite closing a legal guardianship loophole that enabled foreign prospective adoptive parents to bypass restrictive Ugandan adoption laws in 2016, corruption in intercountry adoption persisted, with the courts legitimating new end-runs around the requirements. But US sanctions issued in 2020 bring new hope for reform. By highlighting what children's advocates are doing to fight back, I suggest strategies for effective child and family safeguarding practices against adoption corruption as well as efforts to seek justice for affected children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of Intensive Family Preservation services (IFPS) has increased dramatically in recent years, with most states having such programs in place to assist families involved in the child welfare system. While IFPS programs are diverse in their scope, nature, and service provision, most are home-based and employ a highly trained social services professionals. The present study examined the familial, personal, and service characteristics associated with treatment completion and re-referral in IFPS at a community agency. Data were archival (n = 2301) and were provided to the researchers by the agency itself. The present study represents an analysis of treatment-as-usual data, in an effort to determine patterns in service provision and family re-referral. A variety of family factors, such as family structure and the presence of adults in the household, as well as hours and types of services completed, predicted IFPS completion and re-referral. Increased provider-family contact was influential in positive outcomes, including re-referral. These findings suggest that increased provider-family contact is likely to improve the outcomes for families served by IFPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to investigate the mediating role of multisystemic strengths in the association between complex trauma (CT) exposure and placement stability among racialized youth using the Child and Adolescent Needs and Strength (CANS) assessment. Participants were 4022 Black and Latinx youth in the child welfare system in a midwestern state. Negative binomial regressions revealed a significant indirect effect of CT exposure on placement stability through interpersonal strengths ( p < .01), coping skills ( p < .001), optimism ( p < .01), and talents/interests ( p < .05). At the familial level, there was a significant indirect effect of CT exposure on placement stability through family strengths and relationship permanence ( p < .001). At the community level, educational system supports, and community resources indirectly impacted the relationship between CT exposure and placement stability ( p < .01). These findings suggest that early interventions aimed at identifying and developing multisystemic strengths in Black and Latinx youth in the child welfare system can help maximize placement stability., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Parents with serious mental health (MH) and substance use disorders (SUD) can face profound challenges caring for their children. MH/SUD treatment can improve outcomes for both parents and their children. This study evaluated whether parents with Medicaid with MH/SUD conditions whose children had child protective services (CPS) involvement were receiving MH/SUD treatment and whether receipt differed by race. We analyzed the 2020 Child and Caregiver Outcomes Using Linked Data (CCOULD) which contains Medicaid and child welfare records from Kentucky and Florida on 58,551 CPS-involved caregivers. Among caregivers with an MH diagnosis, White individuals were more likely than Black individuals to have received counseling (42% vs. 20%) or an MH medication (69% vs. 52%). Among caregivers with an SUD, White individuals were more likely than Black individuals to have received counseling (43% vs. 20%) or an SUD medication (43% vs. 11%). More effort is needed to connect parents with CPS involvement to MH/SUD treatment, particularly Black parents., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The aim of this study was to examine changes in parental empowerment and child behavioural problems during a period of youth care and how changes are related to the kind of services provided. We compared a preservation service that was family‐centred (FCS) with out‐of‐home services that were primarily child‐centred (CCS). The sample consisted of 621 families who were supported by FCS (n = 434) or CCS (n = 137). Information about parental empowerment and child behavioural problems was gathered at the start and end of youth care. Significant changes during treatment were identified with t tests and effect sizes. Significant improvements emerged on all empowerment scales for FCS but only on the behavioural control subscale for CCS. Moreover, significant improvements emerged on all child behavioural scales for both FCS as CCS. Cross‐lagged analysis showed that the kind of service, in favour of FCS, predicted parental empowerment but not child behavioural problems. Parental empowerment and child behavioural problems were negatively related. This paper discusses the potential for parental empowerment and FCS elements in CCS out‐of‐home care and the need for follow‐up research on this subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of animal-assisted therapy delivered as an adjunct to standard-of-care intensive family preservation services, compared with usual care alone. Method: Families referred by Child Protective Services (M child age = 6 years ± 4; M parent age = 32 years ± 8.26) were individually randomized to experimental (n = 14) or control (n = 14) intervention. Family functioning outcomes were measured using the North Carolina Family Assessment Scale for Reunification. Results: All four targeted family functioning outcomes were significantly increased for participants who received animal-assisted therapy as an adjunct to intensive family preservation services (n = 14) with medium to large effect sizes. These improvements were sustained in two of the subscales through discharge. No significant differences were measured for the distal clinical outcome of disposition of children at discharge. Conclusions: Findings suggest that adding animal-assisted therapy as an adjunct can improve evidence-based clinical interventions aimed at enhancing the caregiving contexts of children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract High rates of failed reunification indicate that family preservation (FP) does not necessarily lead to permanency for children. It could be argued that, in such failed cases, the decision-making process leading to the preservation of the family was inadequate. In order to gain insight into the role that decision-making plays in family preservation practice, we studied decision-making within an FP-intervention program provided by the Expertise Center. The Expertise Center explicitly combines treatment and decision-making in an assessment-based intervention that is provided to families seeking either to be reunited with their young child (0–2) or to avoid an out-of-home placement of the child. In addition, at least one of the parents has psychiatric problems. We hereby attempted to a) map decision-making trajectories in practice and b) provide feedback about Expertise Center decision-making based on evidence regarding the – sometimes evolving – quality of parental behavior as observed in the participants. We have used a descriptive design (n = 100) as well as a one-group repeated measures design (n = 28) to examine parental behavior using the Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification (AMBIANCE). We hypothesized that a negative recommendation regarding family preservation would manifest itself in the display of more frequent and more severe atypical parental behavior. Our results indicate that the Expertise Center succeeded in contributing broadly to timely decision-making in the context of permanency planning, and that implementation of the Decision-making Continuum potentially improved the quality of clinical decision-making. Furthermore, our hypothesis was confirmed by four out of five measurements of parental behavior that have been proven to be significant for children's attachment security. Since these are promising results, the Expertise Center program could serve as an inspiration for the practice field. Highlights • The Expertise Center contributes to timely permanency planning decision-making. • Clinical decision-making may be improved using the Decision-making Continuum. • Decisions of the Expertise Center are underlined with evidence of parental behavior. • More knowledge on clinical decision-making is urgent to achieve permanency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At-risk families live under circumstances that hinder their parenting competences, compromising their ability to fulfill their children’s needs appropriately. The complex and multiple-source nature of the adversities that they endure makes family preservation interventions challenging. Because their efficacy largely depends on the extent to which interventions fit participants’ needs and characteristics, the aims of this study were to draw the sociodemographic (individual, family, economic, labor, and child-related variables) and psychosocial profile (negative life events, parenting stress, and psychological distress symptomatology) of Spanish and Portuguese family preservation users while testing the inter-country differences. The results showed that the majority of participants had a low educational level, were unemployed, and were poor. Spanish and Portuguese participants had suffered an average of 5 and 4 negative life events over the past 3 years, respectively, with a high emotional impact. The most common were labor precariousness and economic hardship. Clinical levels of parenting stress were found in 48.1% of the Spanish participants and 39.1% of the Portuguese participants. An important proportion of the participants had clinical levels of psychological distress (Spain = 71.9%; Portugal = 45.8%), indicating the presence of mental health problems. Families’ support needs are discussed and guidelines for interventions aimed at improving parents’ and children’s well-being are outlined.

Family support initiatives aimed at guaranteeing children's rights and preserving the family are undergoing extensive diversification, to meet the specific needs and strengths of families. Child day-care initiatives constitute a novel approach in child welfare services, as a way to complement family service for at-risk families. They are delivered in a child-group format and follow a psycho-educational methodology. This study analyzed the impact of a novel child day-care program on children's quality of life, adjustment and development, and explored the moderating role of different child and family dimensions on the program's impact. For this purpose, we followed a pretest-posttest evaluation with a control group ( N  = 83). The results showed improvements in different facets of children's quality of life, as well as a positive impact in other adjustment and developmental dimensions, such as social skills, internalizing problems, and intelligence. Interaction effects were found between internalizing problems and children's sex, and between academic competence and family risk level. In conclusion, this article brings the first wave of evidence about the effectiveness of child day-care programs for supporting at-risk children from a preservation approach. Practical implications for child welfare services are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the margin of the ongoing experimental and quasi‐experimental research projects on family preservation, some research projects focus on the process through which families accomplish change and acknowledge the importance of the working alliance. There is, however, little information about barriers and facilitators in building this working alliance. To fill this gap, we performed a multiple case study with a triangulation of ethnographical methods such as observation, in‐depth interviews, case file analysis, and multistakeholder focus groups. We illustrate how, in a context of managerialism and transactional leadership, social workers find themselves in a continuous tension between complying with the expectations of their social organization and “tuning in” with the service users. This jeopardizes the working alliance between a social worker and a family. Consequences for research, practice, and policy regarding family preservation interventions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of couple therapy training to the consultants of crisis intervention center to reduce divorce tendency in Markazi Province. The initial study population included all consultants of the crisis intervention centers in Markazi province accounted for about 500 people, and the initial sample consisted of 30 counselors. A researcher-made questionnaire was used to measure the effectiveness of training on enhancing the quality of consulting services that the validity and reliability of both questionnaires were verified. The results showed that couple therapy training to the consultants raised the quality of consulting services in these centers, and a significant difference was found in the quality of consulting services in these centers before and after the trainings. On the other hand, the tendency to divorce in the post-test had decreased significantly compared to the pre-test. Therefore, it is recommended that the consultants of the consulting centers use the couple therapy technique in resolving the couples' problems. Also, it is useful to hold more training programs for the consultants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Many transgender and gender-expansive young people live outside of mainstream society, due to structural barriers that limit access to employment, health care, education, and public accommodations, as well as prejudice and discrimination within their families and communities. These structural barriers can be understood as cisgenderism. Though a growing body of research examines lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth homelessness, gaps in knowledge about the specific experiences of transgender and gender-expansive homeless youth remain. This phenomenological qualitative investigation explored aspects of transgender and gender-expansive youth's experiences related to homelessness. This article focuses on participants' understanding of their pathways into homelessness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both in Flanders and in the Netherlands, there is a growing attention to family preservation programs. Research on family preservation is, however, mainly conducted within a positivist framework. Because of that, we have gathered some insights into overall trends, but we have very little detailed information about the day-to-day practice of family preservation. What happens when a social worker and a family are face-to-face? What are the underlying mechanisms that influence the impact of a family preservation program? In this study, we use a multiple case-study with a triangulation of different ethnographical methods to build knowledge about the complex and dynamic tension in which family preservation programs take shape. We illustrate the discrepancy between how an intervention is displayed ‘front stage’ (in case-files, reports, registrations) and what happens ‘back stage’ (during the face-to-face contacts). We describe how, at the beginning and at the end of a treatment process, the focus on the ‘front stage’ influences the attunement between a social worker and a family. In between, however, the social worker undertakes small but significant actions at the ‘back stage’ of the intervention process, which are regarded as extremely helpful by the families. By shedding light on what happens beyond case-files, reports and registrations, it becomes possible to open the black box of social interventions and enrich the conceptual framework of ‘what works' in family preservation. In addition, by working collaboratively between researchers, social workers and families, a collaborative research community is formed and local improvement processes are enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined child maltreatment as a function of cumulative family risk in a sample of at-risk families ( N = 837) who were referred to an intensive family preservation program because of child behavior problems or suspected child abuse and neglect. The goal of this intensive family preservation program is to improve parenting skills and reduce immediate family stressors that may lead to an increased risk of child abuse and neglect. The findings indicate that the most prominent family risks comprising the cumulative risk scale in our sample were socio-economic disadvantage (e.g., income, unemployment, housing instability) and parental characteristics (e.g., mental/physical health, parental use of alcohol, domestic violence). Further, the results demonstrated a strong quadratic trend in the relationship between cumulative family risk and child maltreatment, and identified a risk threshold effect at three cumulative family risks after which the child risk for maltreatment increased exponentially. These findings are interpreted in the light of the current research on differentiative interventions, supporting differentiated services to the families with low vs. higher risk for child maltreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rigorous research on the efficacy of family group conferencing is rare. This randomized control trial study used an intent-to-treat approach to examine whether a referral to a family group conference (FGC) was associated with re-referrals, substantiated re-referrals, or out-of-home placements among child welfare-involved families receiving in-home services. We found no significant associations between treatment and control group assignment and the three outcomes for the sample as a whole. However, families with more children had higher odds of a re-referral and a substantiated re-referral, families with more than one parent had higher odds of re-referral, and families where a substance abuse services referral was noted had higher odds of out-of-home placement. In interaction models with race, we found that families with African American mothers who were referred for an FGC were more likely to be re-referred compared to other families, but no differences were identified with respect to their rates of substantiated re-referrals or out-of-home placements. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The child protection workers’ attitude toward responsibility for child safety is complex and requires further examination. Using the Quality Improvement Project on Differential Response data from Illinois we examined the characteristics that influence worker attitude towards child safety. The attitude variable measures workers’ belief in family responsibility for child safety compared to state responsibility for child safety. Regression analyses suggest that self-perception of skills, confidence in community resources, confidence in the child protection system, and worker age significantly predict worker attitude. Findings support organizations to direct resources towards shifting attitudes in the direction that favors agency mandate and needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly, intercountry adopted children have special needs similar to children adopted from foster care in the United States. Out-of-home placement may be necessary when less restrictive services have not adequately addressed an adopted child's needs. The experiences of 19 adoptive parents who chose to place their intercountry adopted child in out-of-home care due to their child's disability were explored through qualitative interviews and family ecomaps. Themes emerging from interviews relate to adoptive parent definitions of adoption and disability, challenges identifying and accessing services, and the effects of placement on their family, within an ecological systems perspective. Findings show the need for service providers to better understand the impact of an intercountry adopted child's disability and preadoption history on family adjustment, as well as to support parents through the out-of-home placement process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child- and family-centered care has permeated the practices of child welfare as a means to address fragmentation. Case management appears promising, but the approach is still in its infancy. This article aims to provides an understanding of the emergent organizational vision of a new approach to case management at multiple organizational levels. The authors conducted a case study on the implementation of Intensive Family Case Management in a Dutch organization that provides child and youth protection services. The focus is on the continuous and bottom-up process of visioning, which has helped to define the shared organizational vision. The key finding was an emerging, widely shared vision that is congruent at many organizational levels and that contrasts starkly with the old work approach. The conclusion is that innovative child- and family-centered approaches to case management are inherent to a multi-level organizational system that is consistent with the approaches it advocates, being embedded in organizational structures and embodied in practitioners’ mindsets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of the implementation of Family First Preservation Services Act, and to meet legal requirements set by the Indiana State Legislature in 2019, Indiana Department of Child Services (DCS) implemented Indiana Family Preservation Services (INFPS) to maintain children in the home when it is deemed safe to do so. This paper explores the effects of INFPS on child removal episodes and repeat maltreatment. This study compares all children and families receiving INFPS between January 1, 2021 to March 31, 2021 to a similar cohort of in-home cases that opened between January 1, 2019 and March 31, 2019. Contribution analysis and a quasi-experimental design are employed by using administrative records and survey data collected from service providers. INFPS is associated with reduced repeat maltreatment by about 3–4 % at the case-level and about 2–3 % at the child-level. In contrast to repeat maltreatment, in both case-level and child-level analyses, INFPS was not significantly associated with decreased likelihood of child removal. Overall, these results identify short-term effectiveness of INFPS on reducing repeat maltreatment during the treatment period. Results highlight the potential utility of INFPS to improving such outcomes, through increased use of evidence-based practices (EBP). Current findings demonstrate the need for continued research on the long-term effects of INFPS on child and family outcomes. • Adherence to INFPS EBP fidelity metrics were met by most service providers. • INFPS reduced rates of repeat maltreatment in the treatment population. • Results emphasize the need to support child safety throughout cases. • Disproportionality via service provision remains a barrier under INFPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In child welfare, there is sometimes a false dichotomy between child safety and family preservation. In an evaluation of Family Group Decision Making in four child welfare jurisdictions, worker surveys were administered to caseworkers, supervisors, program directors, and program coordinators asking about worker perceptions, demographics, organizational culture and climate, and job characteristics. The surveys contained the Dalgleish Scale, an instrument designed to measure the perspectives of workers across the continuum of child safety versus family preservation beliefs. Assessing a number of worker characteristics, an analysis of the Dalgleish Scale revealed that staff who have worked in child welfare longer are more likely to be oriented toward family preservation, whereas staff working in the field for a shorter time period or rating the shared vision among staff higher are more likely to be oriented toward child safety. Evidence has demonstrated that caseworkers' perspectives influence disposition decision making, and that child and family outcomes, such as maltreatment recurrence or out-of-home placement, are not solely determined by family and case characteristics. The potential utility of developing a better understanding of staff orientation has implications for organizational culture, compliance with policy mandates, workforce development, and most importantly, outcomes for child welfare-involved families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the implementation characteristics of the Family Education and Support program, a theory-driven, needs-based, and evidence-based positive parenting program originally developed for the Andalusian family preservation services. The implementation process of 34 trials of the FAF program with 155 participants was analyzed. Cluster analyses were also performed to explore variability in implementation conditions from a comprehensive perspective. Results showed different implementation profiles that moderated the FAF effectiveness (namely lengthier interventions, higher program fidelity, and practitioners' positive perceptions and satisfaction with the program). The relevance of examining implementation process across several trials is discussed in order to distinguish core and non-core FAF components, as well as the need for combining faithful and adaptable implementations that guarantee the ecologic validity of evidence-based positive parenting programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]