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The Hungarians were great hunters even before the conquest. We can deduce this from the legend of the miraculous deer, but also from Anonymus' remark (Gesta Hungarorum) that the young people hunted almost every day, so the Hungarian were ahead of all other peoples in hunting. Article 15 of the Golden Bull of 1222 stated that 'the horsemen, houndsmen and falconers should not dare to stay in the villages of the noblemen' ('agazones, caniferi, et falconarii non præsumant descendere in villis servientium'). But who exactly are the houndsmen? Why did Andrew II forbid them alike the horsemen and the falconers to stay in the villages of the nobles? In my study I will give a short overview of the legal status and duties of the houndsmen and the falconers, the beginnings of the Hungarian hunting culture, the early sources of hunting regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife conservation can become contentious when human interests are impinged. For peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the United Kingdom, their iconic status as a protected species is contested by pigeon racers and falconers restrained by strict wildlife policies. However, even entrenched conservation policies can shift, sparking controversy.This paper seeks to understand the conditions leading to recent conservation policy shifts and conflicts. Through archival research and discourse analysis of falconry and pigeon racers' rhetoric, I review the development of 150 years of UK wildlife legislation and politics surrounding peregrines, situating present‐day conflict within long‐standing tensions between competing interests.In doing so, I demonstrate how contrasting ideologies of the raptors existed simultaneously between groups. Each vied for dominance and influenced policies over time, with the ideologies of 'winners' suppressing that of the 'losers' to become the norm.This historical approach highlights the key role global events like war played in overpowering the dominance of protective ideologies towards peregrines domestically, allowing peregrine culls and capture to become socially permissible. Conversely, post‐War environmental movements originating in the United States suppressed falconry's extractive relationships with peregrines in the United Kingdom, entrenching ecological priorities as a norm still conventional today.I argue that wildlife protection is contested because cultural extinction of falconry and pigeon racing were imminent, brought on by policymakers' focus on preventing the biological extinction of peregrines. However, recent policy shifts highlight the acceptance of anthropocentric interests within conservation practices.Policy implications: Animals can play multiple roles in society, but the public may not be accustomed to anthropocentric interests overtly displayed within contemporary conservation practices. Policy needs to be more sensitive towards accommodating or communicating human interests, but to also reflect on the social and ecological implications of their own ideologies towards conservation. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Wildlife conservation can become contentious when human interests are impinged. For peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the United Kingdom, their iconic status as a protected species is contested by pigeon racers and falconers restrained by strict wildlife policies. However, even entrenched conservation policies can shift, sparking controversy. This paper seeks to understand the conditions leading to recent conservation policy shifts and conflicts. Through archival research and discourse analysis of falconry and pigeon racers' rhetoric, I review the development of 150 years of UK wildlife legislation and politics surrounding peregrines, situating present‐day conflict within long‐standing tensions between competing interests. In doing so, I demonstrate how contrasting ideologies of the raptors existed simultaneously between groups. Each vied for dominance and influenced policies over time, with the ideologies of ‘winners’ suppressing that of the ‘losers’ to become the norm. This historical approach highlights the key role global events like war played in overpowering the dominance of protective ideologies towards peregrines domestically, allowing peregrine culls and capture to become socially permissible. Conversely, post‐War environmental movements originating in the United States suppressed falconry's extractive relationships with peregrines in the United Kingdom, entrenching ecological priorities as a norm still conventional today. I argue that wildlife protection is contested because cultural extinction of falconry and pigeon racing were imminent, brought on by policymakers' focus on preventing the biological extinction of peregrines. However, recent policy shifts highlight the acceptance of anthropocentric interests within conservation practices. Policy implications: Animals can play multiple roles in society, but the public may not be accustomed to anthropocentric interests overtly displayed within contemporary conservation practices. Policy needs to be more sensitive towards accommodating or communicating human interests, but to also reflect on the social and ecological implications of their own ideologies towards conservation. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Abstract Unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs; drones) offer mobile platforms for ecological investigation, but can be impractical in some environments and the resulting noise can disturb wildlife. We developed a mobile alternative using a bird‐borne platform to record the behaviour of other animals in the field. This unit consists of a lightweight audio and video sensor that is carried by a trained Harris's hawk Parabuteo unicinctus. We tested the hypothesis that our bird‐borne platform is a viable option for collecting behavioural data from mobile animals. We recorded acoustic and video data as the hawk flew through a dense group of Brazilian free‐tailed bats Tadarida brasiliensis emerging from a cave, with a test case of investigating how echolocation calls change depending on spatial position in the bat group. The HawkEar platform is an alternative for collecting behavioural data when a mobile platform that is less noisy and restrictive than traditional UAVs is needed. The design and software are open source and can be modified to accommodate additional sensor needs.

The Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) is a top avian predator, an Arctic specialist, and among the bird species most vulnerable to climate change. This vulnerability is driven by their narrow ecological niche, limited or lack of southward migration, and circumpolar distribution where the most rapid climatic changes are occurring. Climatic and habitat changes may alter Gyrfalcon disease ecology due to changes in vector distributions, host ranges, and pathogen life cycles. Warmer Arctic temperatures and accompanying landscape changes may also alter the Gyrfalcon's prey base, and dietary habits can influence transmission of pathogens. To better understand disease ecology in Gyrfalcons, we compared pathogen prevalence across varying time periods at three study sites in Alaska—the Seward Peninsula (2014–2022), the Alaska Peninsula (2021–2022), and the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta (2008–2013). We collected Gyrfalcon whole blood, thin blood films, cloacal swabs, and fecal samples for serology, haemoparasite assays, microbiological cultures, and fecal tests for parasites. An aliquot of whole blood preserved on filter paper or in Longmire solution was kept for molecular diagnosis of haemoparasites. Serology revealed high exposure to Salmonella (77%), low seroprevalence of avian influenza antibodies (1.5%), exposure to falcon adenovirus type 1 in hatch-year Gyrfalcons (1.3%), and the first report of a Leucocytozoon spp. blood parasite in a Gyrfalcon. We found no antibodies indicative of prior exposure to avian paramyxovirus, West Nile virus, or Chlamydia. One nestling and one hatch-year bird sampled (2 of 12) on the Seward Peninsula exhibited oral plaques from capillarids (Eucoelus spp.) in contrast to those trapped in the Izembek National Wildlife Refuge on the Alaska Peninsula (0 of 6). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs; drones) offer mobile platforms for ecological investigation, but can be impractical in some environments and the resulting noise can disturb wildlife.We developed a mobile alternative using a bird‐borne platform to record the behaviour of other animals in the field. This unit consists of a lightweight audio and video sensor that is carried by a trained Harris's hawk Parabuteo unicinctus.We tested the hypothesis that our bird‐borne platform is a viable option for collecting behavioural data from mobile animals. We recorded acoustic and video data as the hawk flew through a dense group of Brazilian free‐tailed bats Tadarida brasiliensis emerging from a cave, with a test case of investigating how echolocation calls change depending on spatial position in the bat group.The HawkEar platform is an alternative for collecting behavioural data when a mobile platform that is less noisy and restrictive than traditional UAVs is needed. The design and software are open source and can be modified to accommodate additional sensor needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Captive birds of prey are often used for pest control in urban areas, while also participating in falconry exhibitions. Traveling across the country, these birds may represent a public health concern as they can host pathogenic and zoonotic agents and share the same environment as humans and synanthropic species. In this work, Escherichia coli from the cloacal samples of 27 captive birds of prey were characterized to determine their pathogenic potential. Isolates were clustered through ERIC-PCR fingerprinting, and the phylogenetic groups were assessed using a quadruplex PCR method. Their virulence and resistance profile against nine antibiotics were determined, as well as the isolates' ability to produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). The 84 original isolates were grouped into 33 clonal types, and it was observed that more than half of the studied isolates belonged to groups D and B2. Most isolates presented gelatinase activity (88%), almost half were able to produce biofilm (45%), and some were able to produce α-hemolysin (18%). The isolates presented high resistance rates towards piperacillin (42%), tetracycline (33%), and doxycycline (30%), and 6% of the isolates were able to produce ESBLs. The results confirm the importance of these birds as reservoirs of virulence and resistance determinants that can be disseminated between wildlife and humans, stressing the need for more studies focusing on these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This paper looks at past relationships between humans and certain wild animal species, that is, raptors, bears, beavers, and elks. As we have observed, it was the behaviour of animals that caught the attention of humans, such as spectacular flights and hunting by raptors, the similarities in bear and human behaviour, the fascinating impressiveness and charisma of elks, and the landscape-shaping by enigmatic beavers. All these animals have special meanings to humans far beyond their economic significance. Wild goshawks, falcons, and other raptor species have acted as trained hunting companions, but they were never domesticated and had to be treated with care. As for bear, beaver, and elk, there were often complex rituals before, during, and after the killing, because there was no clear separation between humans and animals. The animals were not just prey but equal beings and other-than-human persons. However, there were also changes over time in the human–animal relationship, such as the advent of the farming way of life with a preference for domesticated animals, as well as the arrival of Christianity, by which animals became second to human. Humans have developed a special relationship with some animal species throughout history, even though these animals were never domesticated. Based on raptors, bears, beavers, and elks, the question of whether there are similarities between the perception of these animals that triggered a special kind of fascination in humans and how the relationship between humans and these animals changed between Mesolithic age and medieval times is addressed. As we demonstrate, the categorical antagonism between 'animal' and 'human' is a concept that saw different kinds of influence, from the advent of sedentarism and husbandry to Christianity and from philosophical thinking in Classical Antiquity and the Period of Enlightenment. In prehistory and early history, we find different, opposing world views across time, cultures, and periods. Differences between animals and humans have been considered as fluid, and humans have had to engage with animals and their needs. The well-known and famous 'bear ceremonies' attested to different peoples and times were not unique, but were a part of belief systems that also included other animal species. Among the considered animals, certain raptor species attracted the attention of humans who tried to establish contact with them, as companions, whereas bears were almost 'disguised humans' due to all their similarities with humans, but they were also tabooed beings whose real names had to be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we analyse the different meanings that can be attributed to the word « violence » in the world of medieval falconry. Based on documentation from the ancient Crowns of Castile and Aragon during the late Middle Ages and the early Modern Era, as well as the treatises that the Castilian and Catalan traditions produced within the discipline of hunting with birds, we characterize this violence in the sense of « force exerted against nature », as well as aggression against birds and their nests as property with high economic value, crimes that were codified in the legislative bodies of the time.

In this article, a hypothesis is suggested on the origin of the name Girifalco, a small town in the Calabrian Apennines (southern continental Italy), located along an important flyway of raptors migrating through the Central Mediterranean. In particular, the name could derive from the late ancient/medieval Latin terms gyro and falco, the circling hawk, which perfectly describes the flight of migrating birds of prey passing in late summer over the town, during the exploitation of thermal currents. There, large groups of migrating birds of prey can be observed circling right above "Pietra dei Monaci", the place where the first nucleus of the modern Calabrian town arose. [Article in Italian]

Abstract Background Avian influenza viruses (AIV) may cause enormous economic losses in the poultry industry and sporadically severe disease in humans. Falconry is a tradition of great importance in the Arabian Peninsula. Falcons may catch AIV through contact with infected quarry species. Objectives Falcons together with other bird species are the focus of this seroprevalence study, carried out on sera collected in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). AIV with the haemagglutinin subtypes H5, H7 and possibly H9 may infect humans. Methods We investigated the antibody prevalence to these subtypes in falcons and other birds by haemagglutination inhibition test. 617 sera of falcons and 429 sera of 46 wild/captive bird species were tested. Results From the falcons, only one was positive for H5 antibodies (0.2%), none contained antibodies to H7, but 78 had antibodies to H9 (13.2%). Regarding other birds, eight were positive for antibodies to H5 (2.1%), none had antibodies to H7, but 55 sera from 17 species contained antibodies to H9 (14.4%). Conclusions In contrast to H5 and H7 infections, H9N2 is widespread worldwide. Its ability to reassort, thereby creating possibly pathogenic strains for humans, should remind us of the potential risk that close contact with birds entails.

The article examines the functions of birds of prey in medieval German epic poems and chivalric romance. Despite a number of common European meanings assigned to falcons and hawks in medieval bestiaries and hunting treatises, the semantics of hunting birds may have differed significantly in works of different national and genre traditions. The Nibelungenlied and Kudrun were epic in origin and content, but created in the era of the courtesan. The poets’ desire to “modernize” the sound of ancient tales manifested itself at different levels of the text, including hunting birds’ scenes. These scenes also demonstrate the strength of the genre nature of these poems, when elements “borrowed” from the courtly culture are transformed to fit adequately into the epic text. The article analyses scenes involving hunting birds in the most important 13th-century chivalric romances by Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Gottfried von Strassburg and Chrétien de Troyes.

Captive birds of prey are often used for pest control in urban areas, while also participating in falconry exhibitions. Traveling across the country, these birds may represent a public health concern as they can host pathogenic and zoonotic agents and share the same environment as humans and synanthropic species. In this work, Escherichia coli from the cloacal samples of 27 captive birds of prey were characterized to determine their pathogenic potential. Isolates were clustered through ERIC-PCR fingerprinting, and the phylogenetic groups were assessed using a quadruplex PCR method. Their virulence and resistance profile against nine antibiotics were determined, as well as the isolates’ ability to produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs). The 84 original isolates were grouped into 33 clonal types, and it was observed that more than half of the studied isolates belonged to groups D and B2. Most isolates presented gelatinase activity (88%), almost half were able to produce biofilm (45%), and some were able to produce α-hemolysin (18%). The isolates presented high resistance rates towards piperacillin (42%), tetracycline (33%), and doxycycline (30%), and 6% of the isolates were able to produce ESBLs. The results confirm the importance of these birds as reservoirs of virulence and resistance determinants that can be disseminated between wildlife and humans, stressing the need for more studies focusing on these animals.

The article analyzes studies of bone assemblages of birds of prey from medieval and post‐medieval archaeological sites in the Volga River basin territory. We provide data on the presence of birds of prey: Accipitriformes (hawks and eagles), Falconiformes (falcons), and Strigiformes (owls) within the Volga region during the Middle Ages and post‐Middle Ages (4th–18th centuries AD) in bird communities from 15 archaeological sites. Archaeological bird of prey remains from the Volga basin could contribute to the understanding of the interaction between different ethnic groups in the region within the context of human–nature interaction. In quantitative terms, the clear predominance of the northern goshawk and white‐tailed sea‐eagle, as well as the high proportion of the Eurasian sparrowhawk and relatively high species diversity of falcons and owls observed in medieval time, indicates social or environmental context has changed in a short period of time. The use of birds of prey by the various ethnic groups in the Volga River basin was multifaceted, including for falconry/hawking practice, feathers, amulets, or ornaments and for religious/politics ceremonies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Avian influenza viruses (AIV) may cause enormous economic losses in the poultry industry and sporadically severe disease in humans. Falconry is a tradition of great importance in the Arabian Peninsula. Falcons may catch AIV through contact with infected quarry species. Objectives: Falcons together with other bird species are the focus of this seroprevalence study, carried out on sera collected in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). AIV with the haemagglutinin subtypes H5, H7 and possibly H9 may infect humans. Methods: We investigated the antibody prevalence to these subtypes in falcons and other birds by haemagglutination inhibition test. 617 sera of falcons and 429 sera of 46 wild/captive bird species were tested. Results: From the falcons, only one was positive for H5 antibodies (0.2%), none contained antibodies to H7, but 78 had antibodies to H9 (13.2%). Regarding other birds, eight were positive for antibodies to H5 (2.1%), none had antibodies to H7, but 55 sera from 17 species contained antibodies to H9 (14.4%). Conclusions: In contrast to H5 and H7 infections, H9N2 is widespread worldwide. Its ability to reassort, thereby creating possibly pathogenic strains for humans, should remind us of the potential risk that close contact with birds entails. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to analyze the two circuits of the dairy chain: authorized and unauthorized, by studying the parameters influencing the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of milk in both networks. Samples of raw milk (n=22), collected from nine collection centers (CCL): four authorized and five unauthorized in the region of Kenitra, and four hawking points in the region of Rabat, during a period between March and May 2022, were analyzed to evaluate their physicochemical and bacteriological qualities. The physicochemical quality of the milk included the measurement of chlorides, lactose and fat content, and the determination of titratable acidity and freezing point. The bacteriological quality was assessed by counting the total aerobic mesophilic flora (TAMF), total and fecal coliforms, presumed pathogenic staphylococci and searching for Salmonella. The fat content varies considerably depending on where the milk samples are collected; the average is 4.13% for licensed collection centers, versus 2.94% for unlicensed collection centers and 2.82% for hawking activity. In terms of hygienic quality, the average bacterial load of TAMF in milk from the authorized collection centers is 3.8×108 CFU/ml. Total coliforms (TC) are present with an average rate of 9.37 ×105 CFU/ml with an average portion of 7.87 ×10³ CFU/ml in fecal coliforms (FC), and 1.03 ×106 CFU/ml for presumed pathogenic staphylococci. On the other hand, milk samples from unauthorized collection centers and hawking activity showed higher levels of microbial contamination than those from licensed collection centers. Salmonella was not detected in any of the samples analyzed. The non-compliance with hygiene practices and the late application of cold during the milking, the collection, and the transportation of raw milk, partly explain the origin of this finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the intersection of falconry, political power, and Netherlandish landscape painting, shedding light on how falconry served as a tool of authority and symbolized dominance over the landscape. It focuses on analyzing the political landscapes depicted in artworks by artists like Jan Breughel the Elder, revealing the visual construction of power through falconry.

The paper presents a reading of Helen Macdonald's non-fiction book H Is for Hawk, that focuses on the adoption of the temporal perspective of a predator (the instantaneousness of the attack and capture of the prey) instead of the typically human way of addressing the temporality spreading over a past, a present, and a future (memory, mourning, anxiety). Rethinking the inherited cultural practice of keeping and taming goshawks, the British writer narrates the process of mental merging with the female goshawk she trains. Through her engagement as an austringer (keeper of hawks), she also questions such categories as gender, class, and nationality. In parallel to her own experience, she reads the personal story of yet another transgressive austringer, the homosexual author T. H. White. This double line of vital/textual experience deconstructs the dominant cultural stance of heterosexual masculinity and sketches a peculiar queertopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a reading of Helen Macdonald's non-fiction book H Is for Hawk, that focuses on the adoption of the temporal perspective of a predator (the instantaneousness of the attack and capture of the prey) instead of the typically human way of addressing the temporality spreading over a past, a present, and a future (memory, mourning, anxiety). Rethinking the inherited cultural practice of keeping and taming goshawks, the British writer narrates the process of mental merging with the female goshawk she trains. Through her engagement as an austringer (keeper of hawks), she also questions such categories as gender, class, and nationality. In parallel to her own experience, she reads the personal story of yet another transgressive austringer, the homosexual author T. H. White. This double line of vital/textual experience deconstructs the dominant cultural stance of heterosexual masculinity and sketches a peculiar queertopia.

Falconry at Islamicate courts of the pre-Ottoman period involved a complex set of practices, traditions and institutions. Evolving as part of the royal hunt from the late Umayyad period onwards, it included a body of scientific, mostly medical literature from early Abbasid times. A corpus of falconry poetry developed from around the same time. In Fatimid contexts, falconry images appear prominently in the visual arts. In Mamluk times, the connection between hunting with birds of prey and fighting becomes more pronounced. The present article discusses the significance of Islamicate courts which offered singular conditions for the multi-layered and cumulative nature of falconry as an elite and highly symbolic practice. Insofar as these details are known, it also takes the various human agents involved in courtly falconry into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hunting as an economic element of the emerging Polish state significantly influenced the development of culture. The analysis of this rather extensive area of daily life is crucial to understanding of the functioning of mediaeval society. The value of wildlife and the goods it provided permanentny marked the history and the emerging hunting tradition, which is cultivated up to this day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal intrusion causes significant agricultural losses each year. Wild and domestic animals destroy crops by eating and trampling them, and can pose food safety risks due to the deposition of feces on or near the crops. Birds are one of the most challenging animals to keep out of agricultural fields. Growers try countless methods to deter them, including visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory means. While some of these methods work some of the time, none provide stand-alone protection all the time. Recently there has been interest in developing technology-based solutions to deter nuisance birds in agricultural settings, while others are exploring more natural methods, including falconry. We provide a general overview of bird deterrent methods that are currently in use in agricultural settings, and explore options for novel methods. We found that very few independent scientific studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of most bird deterrent methods. Ultimately, a multi-tiered approach using integrated pest management techniques will likely be most useful as it can be tailored to meet the needs of individual farmers.

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The bonnacon, an animal described in the medieval bestiary, when pursued by hunters, squirts a cloud of boiling dung at them, wounding both dogs and men. Another bestiary animal, the onager, also used its dung in a deceptive way to avoid pursuit. These defensive tactics can be related to similar tactics reported in medieval sources for two birds, the grey heron (Ardea cinerea) and the little bustard (Tetrax tetrax) when attacked by hunters' falcons. Was the fabled defensive behaviour of the bonnacon transferred to a completely different species when passing through the medium of experti, huntsmen, foresters and falconers, where the actions of animals were observed but not correctly interpreted as to cause and effect? This paper traces the bonnacon in late medieval history and studies the apparent portability of its defensive behaviour among different species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic impacts, risk factors, and deterrent strategies related to fruit damage by birds were investigated in a four year study across North America. Here we focus primarily on bird management strategies tested in the Pacific Northwest, including visual deterrents such as hawk-kites, inflatable tube-men, and falconry. Fields protected by professional bird-abatement falconry showed less blueberry damage than non-falconry fields. Neither hawk kites nor kite-falconry combinations showed strong damage prevention. A pilot trial of inflatable tube-men in blueberries showed a potential deterrent effect in one of three blocks. Bird management strategies that are biodiversity-friendly, such as falconry and predator nest boxes, may also be useful in marketing fruit.

Some species of birds form large flocks that forage on agricultural fields and frequently damage the crop, resulting in significant economic losses. Additionally, by defecating they potentially contaminate the crop and farm equipment with pathogens, which is of special concern for leafy greens that are consumed uncooked. There is a need to find an effective deterrent that is also environmentally friendly, and falconry is an ideal candidate for this purpose. To evaluate falconry as deterrent of nuisance birds in leafy greens field in northern California, we performed a set of trials on a control ranch and a treatment ranch of similar production and landscape characteristics. We identified avian species, counted individuals, and recorded flock size in daily surveys pre-treatment, during treatment (falconry), and post-treatment. Bird abundance was lower in spring than in fall, probably because many fields were fallow in spring. In both seasons, we observed a large daily variation in the bird abundance and their use of the fields in the surveys pre-treatment. In fall, the first trial was interfered by the activity of a falconer in an adjacent vineyard and the harvest of the grapes. Importantly, in the second trial, use of the field (e.g., foraging, etc.) decreased during five days of treatment and continued to be low for three days post-treatment, suggesting a “memory effect” after hazing by falconry. Interestingly, the third fall trial coincided with the end of the leafy greens growing season and showed that falconry successfully minimized use of the field by nuisance birds during peak activity. These results indicate that falconry is an effective measure to protect leafy green crops from fecal contamination and damage, but further research is needed at more farms in different regions, and the effect of using falconry in combination with other non-lethal bird abatement approaches (e.g., audio-visual deterrents) should also be evaluated.

Reviewers and critics of Helen Macdonald's H Is for Hawk (2014) tend to focus on the text's treatment of grief and falconry. None has attended to the myriad intertextualities in the memoir. H Is for Hawk is a self-consciously allusive and literary text. Macdonald's writing imitates and reimagines the rich tradition of writing about human encounters with the wild and personal grief. Books, therefore, play an important role in shaping Macdonald's experience of bereavement. By tracing her changing relationship to them and the ways in which their tropes are reworked, one gains an insight into Macdonald's recovery through her search for authentic expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presentation of falconry as intangible cultural heritage that has significantly influenced the development of culture in modern Europe can help in understanding the process of formation of social structures and the beginnings of statehood. The history of one of the most ancient forms of hunting, which entertained princes and kings, goes as far back as the times of the first civilizations. The phenomenon of falconry is still a subject of research by historians and archaeologists, who explore this topic also in the context of Spycimierz and its eventful history connected with the first rulers of the Piast dynasty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]