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Abstract Shallow groundwater sources of boreholes and springs form major types of water resources used in rural areas of Kenya. Information on their status is inadequate, thus hindering their sustainable management. This study investigated the relationship between land-use types, groundwater sources and water quality. Thirty-six randomly selected groundwater sources were sampled in Mathira East Sub-County from four stratified land-use types of forest, tea, coffee, and urban, with 18 samples collected for either shallow boreholes or springs. The Principal Component Analyses (PCA) grouped groundwater resources into three groups according to groundwater sources and land-use types. Spearman rank correlation, one-way ANOVA and unpaired t-test found that land use types significantly influenced shallow groundwater quality along an increasing gradient of landscape disturbances from the less disturbed forest, then tea, coffee and lastly to the severely disturbed, the urban area. The most affected water parameters were turbidity, conductivity, NO3–N, phosphates and faecal coliforms and their variation was attributed to land-use changes, especially agricultural intensification and urbanisation. The significant variations in other water quality parameters (total hardness, total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, manganese and fluoride) were attributed to water–rock interactions, climatic factors and land use changes. Calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) with faecal coliforms parameter from groundwater sources were found unsuitable for domestic use, while the ones derived without faecal coliforms parameter were found safe for human use. Overall, shallow groundwater sources were contaminated and unsafe for human use. This study recommends regular monitoring of key water parameters affected by land use changes to support the sustainable management of shallow groundwater resources in Mathira East Sub-County and the larger region of South Sahara Africa.

Transition metal doping titanium dioxide composites (TiO2/Cu, TiO2/Ag and TiO2/Au) were prepared readily from tetrabutyl titanate and transition metal salt by solvothermal method. The as-obtained samples were characterised by means of X-ray diffraction, fluorescence spectrometry and so on. The inhibition of faecal coliform and photocatalytic degradation properties were investigated. The results showed that the TiO2/Cu, TiO2/Ag and TiO2/Au possessed good antibacterial properties. Particularly, TiO2/Ag possessed the best inhibition rate on Escherichia coli which was above 99.9%. In addition, the as-fabricated samples also exhibited perfect photocatalytic degradation performance towards organic pollutants in wastewater under the simulated sunlight or actual solar. The photocatalytic degradation rates of methyl orange were up to 65.13%, 90.93%, 94.65% and 81.57%, respectively, by using TiO2, TiO2/Cu, TiO2/Ag and TiO2/Au as photocatalysts. Further, TiO2 composites as photocatalyst could be widely used in sewage disposal and photocatalytic degradation of automobile exhaust on the road. Especially, the antibacterial properties of TiO2 and its composites could be used as antibacterial material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanisation and demographic growth are putting pressure on surface water quality in many large cities. Microbial water quality, as determined by the presence of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) was investigated in 15 urban lakes in the inner city of Hanoi, Vietnam from 2021 to 2023. FIB (total coliforms, TC and Escherichia coli, EC) numbers exceeded the allowed values of the Vietnam technical regulation for surface freshwater QCVN 08-MT:2015/BTNMT in most studied lakes. High domestic sewage discharge from residential areas and surface runoff from surrounding areas were the major sources of lake water pollution. High FIB numbers in these lakes mean that the use of water for market gardening or leisure activities or the consummation of fish and other aquatic products from these lakes may pose a risk to the population. These results provide the base of a dataset on water quality, which is a necessary precursor for any scientifically based management plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photosensitized oxidation has been considered to offer better disinfection mechanism under natural sunlight and the efficiency of its inactivation pathway depends on the concentration of dissolving oxygen, the solar irradiance, and the reactive nature of the liquid. This study aimed to evaluate the hydraulic mixer's aeration performance during photo-oxidation treatment. A hydraulic jump was created to aerate the sewage prior to its passage into a reactor, and the amount of dissolved oxygen generated was measured. The effect of mixing intensity on sunlight inactivation of faecal coliforms in a reactor was investigated for 60 min using velocity gradients of 520 s−1, 640 s−1, 720 s−1 and 960 s−1 produced under flow rates of 3 L min−1, 5 L min−1 and 7 L min−1 and 10 L min−1 respectively. The photo-oxidation kinetics of faecal coliform contained in settled and raw sewage samples were also studied under two dark control tests (static and dynamic tests) and a light test. The system achieved a 2.0–2.34 log reduction of faecal coliforms and dissolved oxygen was within the range of 1.9 mg L−1 - 3.0 mg L−1. In the dynamic control test, the inactivation rate constant of bacteria indicated a reduction of 1.11 log (92%) for settled sewage and 1.0 log (90%) for raw sewage. The coliform inactivation rate constant, due to the combined effect of turbulent mixing speed and dark inactivation rate constant, was 2.3 h−1, and the solar irradiance inactivation rate constant was 2.4 h−1. These results have demonstrated that induced aeration is an economically friendly approach to enhance wastewater treatment in developing nations with long sunshine hours.

Milk adulteration leads to the contamination of milk, and it can pose serious health hazards to humans. It may contaminate the milk with organics, heavy metals, and pathogens. The existing treatment methods such as thermal treatment of milk have certain limitations, such as it initiates thermal reactions that may lead to protein denaturation, non-enzymatic browning, and loss of milk quality. Therefore, in a current investigation, the authors for the first time proposed a novel innovative solution to decontaminate the milk from pathogens and toxic metals (Cd, Pb, and Cr) by implying a catalytic ozonation process using Fe-zeolite-4A (Fe-Z4A) as a catalyst. In this method, a synergistic O3/Fe-Ze4A process was found to be highly efficient for removing toxic metals (Cd, Pb, and Cr) and faecal coliforms from milk. It was found that 100% removal efficiency was achieved for the above-mentioned contaminants in 20 min of reaction time with O3 0.9 mg/min and catalyst dose of 5 g, respectively. Therefore, it is suggested that the O3/Fe-Ze4A based catalytic ozonation process may be utilized to purify milk at household levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Our study concerned the recovery and reuse of sludge from aquaculture system implemented in Ain Defla District situated in the North-West of Algeria. As a biotreatment and ecological stabilization technique, vermicomposting of aquacultural sludge with Eisenia fetida earthworms has been advocated. The main goals were to assessthe impact of vermicomposting on the quality of aquacultural sludge in terms of stabilization and hygienization, and to investigate its potential use in agriculture as a biofertilizer without compromising the quality of agricultural products.Method The vermicompost was used to amend the soil and assess its impact on some growth parameters of Phaseolus vulgaris.L snap bean was considered. The physical and chemical parameters of sludge were also evaluated.Results Significant increase of earthworms’weight and length by more than 27 and 22%, respectively, after 21 days of sludge vermicomposting was obtained. Also, significant differences were noted for selected plants’ agronomic parameters in soils amended with aquacultural sludge, compared to the control (unamended soil). In fact, beans with vermicomposted sludge had substantial increases in plant height, leaves weight, and chlorophyll (a) level of 29 cm, 3.6 g, and 0.8 g/g, respectively, compared to 20 cm, 1.5 g, and 0.46 g/g in control.The results also showed that the vermicomposting process allowed for decreased faecal coliforms and streptococcus in the aquacultural sludge.Conclusion The end-product was a safe biofertilizer for use in agriculture.

Improvement of sheep production became a global aim because of the good quality and cheap price of lamb meat. One of the most crucial goals for achieving optimum productivity in Upper Egypt is to protect farm animals from unfavorable climate conditions. Hence, the current study was planned to investigate the influence of three different housing constructions (semi-open, closed and semi-closed plus trees) on feeding behaviour, body weight, serum total protein and glucose levels, as well as faecal coliforms of male lambs under Upper Egypt temperate fall climate. Eighteen lambs were randomly allocated into 3 equal groups (n=6); group I (raised in house 1; semi-shaded (SSB)), group II (raised in house 2; full-shaded (FSB)) and group III (raised in house 3; semi-shaded+ a number of high trees (SSB+T)). The lambs were reared in these housings for 3 months; body weight and feeding behaviour were recorded bi-weekly. In addition, blood total protein and glucose levels, as well as neutrophil\ lymphocyte (N\L) ratio were measured. At the 12th week fecal coliforms count was analyzed, the longest feeding time was associated with highest glucose level in lambs reared in SSB. In addition, body gain was improved significantly in SSB and FSB that accompanied with the high total protein at the 8th week. However, N\L ratio was the lowest in SSB. Fecal coliform count was not affected by housing system. Thus, data suggested that the SSB house had lowest negative impacts on behaviour and performance of lambs followed by FSB and SSB+T housing conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of open dumping of municipal solid waste on local groundwater microbiology were assessed in Ranchi, India. Both the spatial and temporal variations of groundwater microbiology were studied. Groundwater was analyzed to determine heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC). Highest HPC was 4.5 × 104 CFU/mL and the highest total coliform count was 3.7 × 104 CFU/mL. Faecal coliforms were detected in most of the groundwater samples. The highest faecal coliform count of 2.1 × 104 CFU/mL was from a hand pump located adjacent to the dumping site. Spatial variations revealed dispersion of bacterial contamination up to 5 km from the periphery of the municipal solid waste dump. The level of bacterial contamination decreased with an increase in distance from the municipal solid waste dump. The maximum bacterial count was detected in the monsoon whereas the lowest count was found in summer. Molecular characterization of morphologically similar faecal coliform colonies indicated the presence of Klebsiella pneumoniae (Klebsiella ssnkbit, KU647674) in one of the groundwater samples that showed maximum faecal coliform count. Results of this study indicated that groundwater in the area is highly contaminated with a bacterial load which can be a major health risk. HIGHLIGHTS Spatial and temporal variations in groundwater microbiology were assessed due to municipal solid waste dumping.; Faecal coliforms were found in most of the samples.; Bacterial contamination dispersed up to 5 km from the periphery of municipal solid waste dump.; Molecular characterization indicated the presence of Klebsiella pneumoniae in groundwater.;

Abstract Background The implementation of anti-larval strategies in the fight against malaria vectors requires fundamental knowledge of their oviposition sites. The aim of this study was to assess the spatial and temporal distribution of Anopheles breeding sites as well as the influence of abiotic and biotic factors on the proliferation of larvae in urban and non-urban areas of Benin. Methods Sampling of Anopheles larvae was carried out during the rainy and dry seasons in urbanized and non-urbanized areas of the cities of Cotonou, Bohicon, Parakou, and Natitingou in Benin. The Anopheles larval breeding sites were georeferenced and characterized by their nature, type, physicochemical (pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, salinity) and biological attributes (larval density and coliform density). Results A total of 198 positive breeding sites for Anopheles larvae were identified, comprising 163 (82.3%) in the rainy season and 35 (17.7%) in the dry season. Out of these larval habitats, 61.9% were located in urbanized areas, and were predominantly puddles. Principal component analysis revealed a high positive correlation of larval density with temperature and dissolved oxygen, and with salinity in the coastal zone. In addition, cross-sectional analysis of the microbiological results with larval density showed a significant negative correlation between larval productivity and faecal coliform load. Conclusions This study indicated the presence of multiple larval habitats of Anopheles in the urban areas which were created through human activities, and associations between larval density and intrinsic factors of the habitats such as temperature, dissolved oxygen and faecal coliform load. This type of information may be useful for the implementation of appropriate control strategies in urban areas, including regulation of the human activities that lead to the creation of breeding sites, proper environmental management and targeted larvicidal use. Graphical abstract

Purpose Our study concerned the recovery and reuse of sludge from aquaculture system implemented in Ain Defla District situated in the North-West of Algeria. As a biotreatment and ecological stabilization technique, vermicomposting of aquacultural sludge with Eisenia fetida earthworms has been advocated. The main goals were to assessthe impact of vermicomposting on the quality of aquacultural sludge in terms of stabilization and hygienization, and to investigate its potential use in agriculture as a biofertilizer without compromising the quality of agricultural products. Method The vermicompost was used to amend the soil and assess its impact on some growth parameters of Phaseolus vulgaris.L snap bean was considered. The physical and chemical parameters of sludge were also evaluated. Results Significant increase of earthworms'weight and length by more than 27 and 22%, respectively, after 21 days of sludge vermicomposting was obtained. Also, significant differences were noted for selected plants' agronomic parameters in soils amended with aquacultural sludge, compared to the control (unamended soil). In fact, beans with vermicomposted sludge had substantial increases in plant height, leaves weight, and chlorophyll (a) level of 29 cm, 3.6 g, and 0.8 g/g, respectively, compared to 20 cm, 1.5 g, and 0.46 g/g in control. The results also showed that the vermicomposting process allowed for decreased faecal coliforms and streptococcus in the aquacultural sludge. Conclusion The end-product was a safe biofertilizer for use in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 150 lakes on different peninsulas and islands are situated in the Larsemann Hills. The Larsemann Hills is an ice-free area and are located halfway between the Vestfold Hills and the Amery Ice Shelf on the southeastern coast of Prydz Bay, Princess Elizabeth Land, and East Antarctica. During 34th Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA) from 2014 to 2015, twenty lake water samples in triplicates were collected from the Broknes & Grovnes peninsula. Coliform and fecal coliform bacteria were analyzed in these samples. Out of twenty, eleven lake water samples were found to be contaminated with coliform bacteria. However, fecal coliform bacteria were absent in all the lake water samples. Coliforms are found in the lakes of Broknes peninsula (P2 Lake & P3 Lake) and Grovnes peninsula (L1C NG, L1D NG, L1E NG, L7 NG, L7A NG, L7B NG, L2 SG, L4 SG & L5 SG). Antarctic lakes water is being polluted due to anthropogenic activities caused by various research activities and tourism. The present study confirms the presence of coliform bacteria in the lakes of East Antarctica which indicates an alarming situation and needs to be investigated further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The implementation of anti-larval strategies in the fight against malaria vectors requires fundamental knowledge of their oviposition sites. The aim of this study was to assess the spatial and temporal distribution of Anopheles breeding sites as well as the influence of abiotic and biotic factors on the proliferation of larvae in urban and non-urban areas of Benin. Methods: Sampling of Anopheles larvae was carried out during the rainy and dry seasons in urbanized and non-urbanized areas of the cities of Cotonou, Bohicon, Parakou, and Natitingou in Benin. The Anopheles larval breeding sites were georeferenced and characterized by their nature, type, physicochemical (pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, salinity) and biological attributes (larval density and coliform density). Results: A total of 198 positive breeding sites for Anopheles larvae were identified, comprising 163 (82.3%) in the rainy season and 35 (17.7%) in the dry season. Out of these larval habitats, 61.9% were located in urbanized areas, and were predominantly puddles. Principal component analysis revealed a high positive correlation of larval density with temperature and dissolved oxygen, and with salinity in the coastal zone. In addition, cross-sectional analysis of the microbiological results with larval density showed a significant negative correlation between larval productivity and faecal coliform load. Conclusions: This study indicated the presence of multiple larval habitats of Anopheles in the urban areas which were created through human activities, and associations between larval density and intrinsic factors of the habitats such as temperature, dissolved oxygen and faecal coliform load. This type of information may be useful for the implementation of appropriate control strategies in urban areas, including regulation of the human activities that lead to the creation of breeding sites, proper environmental management and targeted larvicidal use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many water quality metrics cannot be measured in situ and require collection of a physical sample for laboratory analysis. This includes microbiological samples for detection of fecal coliform bacteria in marine and freshwater systems which are a critical component of food safety programs for human consumption of bivalve shellfish worldwide. Water sample collection programs are typically vessel-based which can be time and resource intensive. In Canada, the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program aims to avoid consumption of contaminated molluscan bivalves by monitoring fecal coliform bacteria through vessel-based water sample collection. Uncrewed aerial vehicles or drones are becoming more commonly used for water sample collection given their relatively low cost but are rarely used to support microbiological analyses. A prerequisite for the acceptance of a new collection method for a regulatory program is to determine if the method of sample collection affects results. To assess this potential, we designed, developed, and tested a sampling device attached to the underside of a drone to collect water samples for bacteriological analysis. Drone and vessel-based samples were collected in the same location, at the same 20-cm depth, within a minute apart, at ten different geographic locations in coastal Nova Scotia waters to compare fecal coliform counts. Bacterial count estimates obtained from drone-collected samples were not significantly different than estimates obtained from vessel-collected samples (p < 0.5). Results from this study suggest novel water sampling techniques using drones could supplement or replace traditional vessel-based sampling methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accelerated growth of the population in recent years presents, as a great consequence, a significant increase in wastewater, which, on many occasions, is not discharged properly. This work aims to design a sewerage and wastewater treatment system in Las Mercedes commune in southern Ecuador based on geological, topographic, hydrological, geochemical and demographic parameters. All this focused on reducing pollution and complying with current national and international regulations, meeting the needs of the rural population studied. The methodology used consists of four phases: i) collection, inventory and processing of the base information ii) design of the sewerage system, ii) design of a wastewater treatment system and iv) environmental impact assessment and referential budget. The sewerage system consists of 3.2 km long PVC pipes that transport wastewater to a purification system of water pretreatment and facultative and maturation ponds. The designed system complies with a total purification of 636.27 MPN/100 ml of faecal coliforms (99.994%) and 35.30 mg/l of BOD5 (88%). The proposed design contributes to wastewater management and environmental education research, defining a combined model of a sewerage system with stabilisation ponds replicable in communities with similar conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Access to safe drinking water is one of the basic human rights and is critical to health. However, much of the world’s population lacks access to adequate and safe water. Approximately 884,000, 000 people in the world still do not get their drinking water from safe sources; Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for over one third of this number. It is estimated that 80% of all illnesses in the world are related to use of unsafe and contaminated water. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 1st 2017 to July 30th 2018 in three randomly selected woreda (districts) of Eastern Zone Tigrai. Water samples were examined for total coliforms and thermotelorant coliforms using the most probable number method. Standard biochemical testing was performed on samples that tested positive to identify the genus of bacteria. The contaminant risk of water sources were assessed using the sanitary inspection checklist of the World Health Organization. The results were interpreted using World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality. Data was collected using laboratory checklist and sanitary inspection check list. It was entered, cleared and analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 and a variable having a P

Abstract The present study involves the chemical and bacteriological analysis of water from different sources i.e., bore, wells, bottle, and tap, from Peshawar, Mardan, Swat and Kohat districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province, Pakistan. From each district, 50 water samples (10 samples from each source), regardless of urban and rural status, were collected from these sources and analysed for sulphates, nitrates, nitrites, chlorides, total soluble solids and coliforms (E. coli). Results indicated that majority of the water sources had unacceptable E. coli count i.e.> 34 CFU/100mL. E. coli positive samples were high in Mardan District, followed by Kohat, Swat and Peshawar district. Besides this, the some water sources were also chemically contaminated by different inorganic fertilizers (nitrates/nitrites of sodium, potassium) but under safe levels whereas agricultural and industrial wastes (chloride and sulphate compounds) were in unsafe range. Among all districts, the water quality was found comparatively more deteriorated in Kohat and Mardan districts than Peshawar and Swat districts. Such chemically and bacteriologically unfit water sources for drinking and can cause human health problems.

Background Basic sanitation could be a potential indicator of the spread of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) and, in this context, space-time patterns are important tools with which to elucidate the spread of disease and identify risk factors. The aim of this study was to assess a possible association between basic sanitation indices and COVID-19 rates in all the 5570 municipalities of Brazil and its spatial distribution. Methods Data of COVID-19 cases registered in Brazil from 28 February until 31 May 2020 and independent variables associated with basic sanitation were included. Results High incidence rates were significantly associated with precarious water service index (0–25% coverage) and offstandard faecal coliforms index for tap water (5–50% and 75–100% of samples tested). A significant association between high mortality rates and sewage collection (0–25% coverage)/treatment (25–50% coverage) indices was also verified. In addition, clusters with significant spatial autocorrelation were identified mainly in the North and Northeast regions for mortality and incidence rates (high-high risk areas) and for offstandard faecal coliforms index. Those regions are considered the poorest in Brazil, presenting with low incomes, human agglomerations, as well as a poor basic sanitation system, which also hinder the implementation of COVID-19-preventative measures. Conclusions A precarious basic sanitation infrastructure could potentially be associated with the high transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal water quality assessment is important to maintain a healthy environment for various uses including fisheries and recreation. Microbial populations are used as biological indicators of contamination to monitor water quality and are considered by the government to be one of the critical features for issuing safety guidelines. Different bacterial groups (pathogenic, vibrio and faecal) from five major recreational beaches of Chennai, India, were monitored for the assessment of coastal water quality. Faecal coliforms (FC) were high at all the beaches, with up to 4.2 × 105 CFU/mL and exceeding the normal standard limits of 100 CFU/100 mL set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India. Rainfall was found to have a role in the variability and distribution of indicator and pathogenic bacteria. The seasonal dry period witnessed elevated FC, while dilution in the wet period reduced Escherichia coli–like organisms (ECLO). High microbial counts were detected near the beach situated close to the river mouth, mainly due to discharges of untreated domestic sewage and industrial wastes. Similarly, the biological oxygen demand (BOD) was also high, 0.32 to 10.32 mg/L. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) ranged from 2.21 to 134.53 μmol/L and inorganic phosphate (IP) ranged from 0 to 57.53 μmol/L. These values indicated the presence of significant untreated sewage in the coastal water. This study revealed that Chennai coastal waters carry high levels of faecal and pathogenic bacteria, detrimental for recreational and other contact activities. The quantitative and qualitative analyses will be useful for modelling and prediction of coastal water quality and management of other recreational beaches in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was conducted between March 2016 and March 2017 as the first study on the water and mussel quality in the coastal area of Dubrovnik (Croatia). Bacteriological analyses were conducted simultaneously on wild mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) tissue and their ambient water. The total numbers of heterotrophic bacteria, total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci in the water were determined. Concentrations of Escherichia coli were measured in mussel. The investigated stations are located in coastal water, which is particularly influenced by climatic and anthropogenic factors interacting at the boundaries between the land and freshwater and seawater environments. Seasonal variables, such as rainfall and riverine network characteristics, determine the delivery of bacteria (including E. coli) to coastal water. Direct methods of assessing the density of heterotrophic bacteria at all sampling stations showed the characteristics of an oligotrophic area. The abundance of faecal coliform bacteria was in all cases higher within mussel tissue than in the surrounding water where levels were sometimes undetectable. Maximum E. coli concentrations in mussels and seawater were regularly recorded through the summer, with the exceptions of April 2016 and January 2017 at two stations following precipitation. Minimum faecal coliform concentrations were recorded in the winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the performance of individual units of waste stabilisation ponds (WSPs) system treating domestic wastewater. The study was conducted by measuring the concentrations of physiochemical parameters and bacteriological indictors in the influent and effluent samples of each pond. The thickness of sludge was determined by measuring depths of sludge layer in each pond. Knowing the performance of each pond will speed up targeted intervention to improve performance. The influent was mainly characterised by 224, 500, 270 mg L−1, 258 Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU) respectively, of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity and 35600 coliform forming units/100 ml of faecal coliforms. Bacteriological counts were fluctuating and effluent faecal coliforms counts were 1.22 × 104 ± 2.0 × 102 coliform forming units/100 ml. The hydraulic retention times (HRTs) decreased by 2.0, 13.6 and 7.2 days in the first three ponds and by 3.3 days in the last three ponds. Biochemical oxygen demand in the final effluent was 40 mg L−1 more than the design value of f 25 mg L−1. Chemical oxygen demand in the final effluent was 190 mg L−1, higher than the prescribed limit of 150 mg L−1 of discharge into rivers. Total suspended solids in the final effluent was 150 ± 127 mg L−1 more than the national limit of 25 mg L−1. Total suspended solids and turbidity correlated positively with bacteriological indicators, but there was no correlation with temperature except with faecal coliforms. There was also no correlation observed between suspended solids and pH. The treatment system did not meet the design treatment criteria because of overloading as a result of increased population which exceeded the design value. The final effluent from the system did not meet the discharge limits, therefore, it is unsuitable for discharge into the environment as it can pollute ground and surface waters as well as the open environment. Knowledge on the performance of each pond will help in proper interventions to be undertaken at the targeted pond or unit. It is therefore eminent to desludge each pond as a short‐term solution and expand the system for a long‐term solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring the groundwater chemical composition and identifying the presence of pollutants is an integral part of any comprehensive groundwater management strategy. The present study was conducted in a part of West Tripura, northeast India, to investigate the presence and sources of trace metals in groundwater and the risk to human health due to direct ingestion of groundwater. Samples were collected from 68 locations twice a year from 2016 to 2018. Mixed Ca–Mg–HCO3, Ca–Cl and Ca–Mg–Cl were the main groundwater types. Hydrogeochemical methods showed groundwater mineralization due to (1) carbonate dissolution, (2) silicate weathering, (3) cation exchange processes and (4) anthropogenic sources. Occurrence of faecal coliforms increased in groundwater after monsoons. Nitrate and microbial contamination from wastewater infiltration were apparent. Iron, manganese, lead, cadmium and arsenic were above the drinking water limits prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards. Water quality index indicated 1.5% had poor, 8.7% had marginal, 16.2% had fair, 66.2% had good and 7.4% had excellent water quality. Correlation and principal component analysis reiterated the sources of major ions and trace metals identified from hydrogeochemical methods. Human exposure assessment suggests health risk due to high iron in groundwater. The presence of unsafe levels of trace metals in groundwater requires proper treatment measures before domestic use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes the results of a series of laboratory experiments on aimed at developing of a protocol for the use of fly ash as a pit additive in the ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPs) in South Africa. Model VIP vaults were prepared in the laboratory and filled with synthetic faecal sludge; and dosed with fly ash in amounts ranging from 5 to 20 % (w/w). The maximum leachable chemical oxygen demand (COD) accounted for 3.2 % of the total organic matter, while the maximum leachable ammonium accounted for 1.4 % of the leachable ammonium present in the synthetic faecal sludge. All phosphate in the synthetic faecal material was leachable. Mixing of the 20 % dose of fly ash into the synthetic faecal sludge resulted a minimum 98.9 % reduction (or about two log units) in the faecal coliform concentration after 28 days of incubation. As a result, addition of fly ash can decrease microbial threats to public and environmental health threats from the VIP faecal wastes, but can cause environmental contamination with phosphate. The fly ash dose and the duration of the faecal sludge treatment require further optimisation. Relationship between the chemical composition of the fly ash used as an additive to stabilise the VIP faecal sludge and the leaching of phosphorus from the sludge will also have to be investigated further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to provide a novel solution to treat drinking water at household levels, specifically removing arsenic (As) and faecal coliforms (microbes). In the current investigation, a synergistic iron-loaded zeolites and ozonation process (O3/Fe-ZA) was used for the first time in a modified batch reactor to remove coliform bacteria and arsenic in tap water. Moreover, the study utilizes the human health risk assessment model to confirm the health risk due to As intake in drinking water. The risk assessment study revealed a health risk threat among the residents suffering from the adverse effects of As through its intake in drinking water. Furthermore, the results also suggested that the O3/Fe-ZA process significantly removes faecal coliforms and As, when compared with single ozonation processes. Additionally, the ozone dose 0.2 mg/min and Fe-ZA dose of 10 g (in the O3/Fe-ZA process) gives the maximum removal efficiency of 100% within 15 min for faecal coliform removal. In 30 min, the removal efficiency of 88.4% was achieved at the ozone dose of 0.5 mg/min and 93% removal efficiency was achieved using 10 g Fe-ZA for the removal of As in the O3/Fe-ZA process. Hence, it was concluded that the O3/Fe-ZA process may be regarded as an effective method for removing faecal coliforms and As from drinking water compared to the single ozonation processes.

Abstract We assessed the water quality of south-west Victorian rivers impacted by the dairy industry using traditional water quality assessment together with culture-dependent (colilert/enterolert) and also culture-independent (next generation sequencing) microbial methods. The aim of the study was to identify relationships/associations between dairy farming intensity and water contamination. Water samples with high total and faecal coliforms (>1000 MPN cfu/100 ml), and with high nitrogen levels (TN) were observed in zones with a high proportion of dairy farming. Members of the genus Nitrospira , Rhodobacter and Rhodoplanes were predominant in such high cattle density zones. Samples from sites in zones with lower dairy farming activities registered faecal coliform numbers within the permissible limits (<1000 MPN cfu/100 ml) and showed the presence of a wide variety of microorganisms. However, no bacterial pathogens were found in the river waters regardless of the proportion of cattle. The data suggests that using the spatially weighted proportion of land used for dairy farming is a useful way to target at-risk sub-catchments across south west Victoria; further work is required to confirm that this approach is applicable in other regions. Highlights • High total & faecal coliforms and high nitrogen levels (TN) were observed in zones with high proportion of dairy farming. • Members of the genus Nitrospira , Rhodobacter and Rhodoplanes were predominant in high cattle density zones. • Lower dairy farming zones registered faecal coliform numbers within permissible limits and a wide variety of microorganisms. • No bacterial pathogens were found in the river waters regardless of the proportion of cattle. • Results suggest the spatially weighted proportion of land used for dairy farming is useful to target at-risk sub-catchments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Couple faecal coliform (FC) and tracer-aided models to explore drivers of FC loads. • Good simulation of discharge and isotopes indicates hydrological process realism. • Connectivity sustains stores of FC available for transfer to the stream in summer. • Freeze-thaw cycles or a hillslope connectivity dilution effect may be key in winter. • Spatially-distributed models and enhanced FIO data collection are useful next steps. Abstract The role of hydrological connectivity in driving the dynamics of faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) in streams is poorly characterised. Here, we demonstrate how a tracer-aided hydrological model can be used within a coupled modelling approach to explore the role of connectivity in governing stream faecal coliform (FC) dynamics. To do so, we tested a hypothesis that in northern upland catchments, the dynamics of hydrological connectivity between major landscape units (hillslopes and riparian zone) and the stream exert a dominant control on stream FC loads by facilitating generation of runoff-driven FC fluxes. This hypothesis was conceptualised within a simple FC model that was coupled to a tracer-aided hydrological model developed for a small (3.2 km2) data-rich catchment in NE Scotland. The model was dual-calibrated to daily discharge and stable isotope data for the period August 2008 to September 2009; stream FC loads were also simulated but not used as a calibration target. Behavioural models successfully captured the general dynamics of the discharge and isotope data (average Kling-Gupta efficiencies of 0.72 and 0.53, respectively), providing confidence in the realism of simulated hydrological processes. The models simulated a seasonally-varying role of connectivity in driving stream FC loads. In summer, connectivity of the catchment hillslope was crucial in providing a source of FC to the riparian zone for transfer to the stream; this countered the decline in fresh FC input to the riparian zone in summer which reflected the seasonal movement of red deer (the principal source of FC) onto higher ground. In winter when this seasonal movement caused FC to be predominantly stored in the riparian zone, simulated hillslope connectivity primarily provided water to the riparian zone that permitted increased runoff generation and associated mobilisation of FC. Comparison of observed and simulated stream FC loads revealed model performance to be variable (R2 range: 0–0.34). The better performance of the model in summer was consistent with hydrological connectivity being a dominant control on stream FC loads at this time. However, failure of the model to capture low FC loads in winter indicated that additional processes not considered in the model may also govern stream FC dynamics during this period. Incorporating the impact of freeze-thaw cycles on FC mortality, or a dilution effect of hillslope connectivity in winter, could be potential next steps in refining the hypothesis conceptualised in the FC model presented here. The novel coupled modelling approach used in this study successfully allowed a hypothesised role of connectivity in driving stream FC dynamics to be tested, contextualised by the accuracy of discharge and isotope-tracer simulations as indicators of hydrological process realism. Therefore, coupling FIO and tracer-aided hydrological models has clear promise for furthering understanding of FIO dynamics, which is a vital precursor to the successful management of microbial water quality. Based on the experiences in this study, a "roadmap" for the future development and application of coupled approaches is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With phase-plane analysis in Matlab, the relations between the bacterial indicators and dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and temperature, was examined by considering the dynamic during 20 September 2013 to 8 February 2014 for water quality monitoring in enclosed coastal waters at the edge of the Kaş region of Turkey. It has been suggested that the bacterial indicator phase plane analysis provides a good method of monitoring. It was shown that temperature (significance value, p=4.9e-05), DO (p=1.0e-04) and pH (p=4.6e- 04) values have a significant effect on bacterial indicators. The relationship between the bacterial indicators was examined by comparing the same scale "cusp" diagrams, and it was demonstrated that total coliforms concentration were closely related with faecal coliforms (FC) concentration. In presenting the enclosed coastal water quality information, weighting average water quality index (WQIMP) has been used by selecting the sets of appropriate parameters. To keep track of and analyse changes over time by calculating the index numbers, the set of seven variables which are FC, DO, pH, temperature, turbidity, nitrate, total suspended solids and the set of three variables which are FC, temperature, DO were utilized successfully (p=8.3e-05). Parameter quality values were obtained from the software developed using cubic hermite polynomial in Matlab. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Vistula is the longest river in Poland. It stretches from the Silesian Beskids to the Gulf of Gdańsk. Water from the Vistula is the source of drinking water for many cities and is used in industry, and therefore its quality and microbiological purity is an important issue. The quality of water in the Vistula depends, among others, on the quality of water in its basin. The aim of this study is to assess microbiological hazard to the Vistula waters from its tributaries in the vicinity of Kraków. The analyses were carried out on 10 tributaries of the Vistula: Prądnik, Dłubnia, Drwina Długa, Drwinka, Raba, Uszewka, Szreniawa, Uszwica, Kisielina, and Dunajec. The examinations were carried out in four series, from May 2012 to March 2013. The numbers of coliforms, faecal coliforms, Enterococcus faecalis, and sulphate reducing Clostridium were determined using the membrane filtration method, while the serial dilutions method was used to determine the numbers of mesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria, Staphylococcus and Salmonella. There was a large variation in the number of microorganisms in the examined watercourses, however in most cases the water could be classified as clean, whereas waters of the Vistula in the vicinity of Kraków are microbiologically contaminated. Thus, the examined watercourses do not pose a serious threat to the quality of the Vistula. Among the analyzed tributaries, the waters of the Prądnik were characterized by the worst sanitary condition, while the best microbiological quality was observed in the Dunajec.

Rivers and their catchments support multiple human needs, necessitating integrated management of land and water resources. Agricultural land use, specifically the impacts of riparian cattle trampling, potentially significantly contributes to damage to river systems. This study addresses a knowledge gap stemming from the paucity of prior research correlating generation of pollutants with cattle activity locally and in 'real time'. Turbidity, soluble reactive phosphorus and faecal coliforms were analysed at upstream control and downstream impact sites correlated with cattle activity over a 65 m river margin throughout a two-month summer period. Riparian cattle trampling impacted water quality, specifically turbidity and faecal coliform levels. Average turbidity increased by more than 90% between upstream and downstream sites during cattle activity, whilst average faecal coliform counts almost doubled. Findings for phosphorus concentrations were less conclusive, perhaps due to filtration of suspended sediment-bound phosphorus prior to analysis. Illustrative cost--benefit assessment of potential buffer zone installation to exclude cattle from the river margin at the study site, based on values transferred from a relevant published study, found that investment in a buffer zone would achieve a benefit-to-cost ratio of approximately 38:1 with a distribution of broad societal benefits to the farmer, local people and wider publics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the first surveillance study using methacrylate monolithic supports to concentrate environmental coastal water samples, prior to molecular target detection by RT-qPCR. Rotaviruses (RoV) and Noroviruses (NoV) were monitored in a polluted area at the Bay of Koper (Gulf of Trieste, Northern Adriatic Sea) and at a nearby bathing area and mussel farm areas. RoV and NoV are released into the Bay of Koper, with higher rates close to the discharge of the wastewater treatment plant, however, they can be detected at recreational and mussel farming areas. Our results showed that water bodies considered safe based on FC concentrations, can still have low, yet potentially infective, concentrations of human viruses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this study were to present data on the presence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica and on the enumeration of Escherichia coli and faecal coliforms respectively in different species of bivalve molluscs and seawater and to conduct a retrospective evaluation to assess the capacity of E. coli in molluscs and faecal coliforms and S. enterica subsp. enterica in sea and brackish water to predict the presence of S. enterica subsp. enterica in bivalve molluscs, and therefore, the risk of exposure for consumers. Data were collected from 4972 seawater samples and 5785 live bivalve molluscs samples (2877 Ruditapes philippinarum , 2177 Mytilus galloprovincialis, 256 Chamelae gallina and 475 C. gigas and O. edulis ) collected in the molluscs production area of Ferrara, Northern Italy, from 1997 to 2015. An overall S. enterica subsp. enterica occurrence of 2.2% was reported in water and molluscs, with percentages varying depending on the type of sample and on the classification areas. All the 237 Salmonella strains were identified as genus Salmonella and a total of 53 different serovars were observed. Significant associations between the fecal indicators and presence of S. enterica subsp. enterica were observed both applying EU and USA criteria, but, it should be noted that the EU approach seems to be more stringent achieving the goal of identifying the most critical batches (94 out of the 100) whereas, following the USA approach, a not negligible and higher number of batches compliant for faecal coliforms but contaminated by S. enterica subsp. enterica has to be mentioned. In any case, the faecal indicators E. coli in molluscs and faecal coliforms in seawaters reflect only in part the presence of S. enterica subsp. enterica in molluscs and the consequent potential risk for consumers. Microbiological evaluation of seawaters seems to have a minor impact into the prediction of S. enterica subsp. enterica presence in molluscs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Faecal contamination of groundwater from pit latrines is widely perceived as a major threat to the safety of drinking water for several billion people in rural and peri-urban areas worldwide. On the floodplains of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta in Bangladesh, we constructed latrines and monitored piezometer nests monthly for two years. We detected faecal coliforms (FC) in 3.3–23.3% of samples at four sites. We differentiate a near-field, characterised by high concentrations and frequent, persistent and contiguous contamination in all directions, and a far-field characterised by rare, impersistent, discontinuous low-level detections in variable directions. Far-field FC concentrations at four sites exceeded 0 and 10 cfu/100 ml in 2.4–9.6% and 0.2–2.3% of sampling events respectively. The lesser contamination of in-situ groundwater compared to water at the point-of-collection from domestic wells, which itself is less contaminated than at the point-of-consumption, demonstrates the importance of recontamination in the well-pump system. We present a conceptual model comprising four sub-pathways: the latrine-aquifer interface (near-field); groundwater flowing from latrine to well (far-field); the well-pump system; and post-collection handling and storage. Applying a hypothetical dose-response model suggests that 1–2% of the diarrhoeal disease burden from drinking water is derived from the aquifer, 29% from the well-pump system, and 70% from post-collection handling. The important implications are (i) that leakage from pit latrines is a minor contributor to faecal contamination of drinking water in alluvial-deltaic terrains; (ii) fears of increased groundwater pollution should not constrain expanding latrine coverage, and (iii) that more attention should be given to reducing contamination around the well-head. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lam.) is one of the most popular species with high commercial value and important issue of marine aquaculture in the Black Sea. In Romania, marine waters and shellfish are routinely analyzed for faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) of possible contamination within the national monitoring programme regime required under the EC Shellfish Water Directive (2006/113/EC). The present study focused on evaluating of the present microbiological quality of the Romanian marine mussels and shellfish waters. The microbiological quality (faecal coliforms) was examined in mussel’s tissue and seawater by using the current European standard procedures for examination of shellfish and seawaters. The relationship between levels of faecal coliforms (FC) in mussel versus seawater was analysed using a data set of FC results quantified in 110 samples of wild mussel (M. galloprovincialis) and water collected from 4 sampling sites within the Romanian Black Sea coastal areas approved for harvesting of shellfish, during the period 2009 - 2013. The levels of faecal indicator organisms were generally higher in mussels than those for Black Sea waters, with FC values ranging from less than 20 MPN/ 100g to 490 MPN/100g mussel tissues. The concentration of FC in mussel’s tissue was reduced at low salinity (< 9 psu) and temperature in overlying seawater and much higher at >10 psu and temperatures rising up to 27C, indicating that salinity and temperature variation in the Black Sea environment can affect the accumulation and survival of enteric bacteria in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis.

The study investigated how rural communities in semi-arid areas (1) adapt household water management to effects of climate variability and (2) how such adaptation influences household water usage and its quality. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 180 households between July and December 2014 to obtain demographic data on water supply and use. Microbiological quality of source and stored drinking water was determined using a Potatest field kit. In times of water scarcity, households exploited distant (>1 km) sources and stored large quantities (>60 L) of water up to >4 days. Water was re-contaminated by faecal coliforms during storage. Distance to a water source, sharing a source, type of lifting device, type of source and collector of water significantly influenced water supply across villages (p < 0.05). Villagers were more likely to draw less water at greater distances. Point-of-use water treatment and improved hygiene behaviour are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, the microbiological quality of river sediments and its impact on water resources are not included in the water quality monitoring assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish genetic relatedness between faecal coliforms and enterococci isolated from the river water and riverbed sediments of Apies River to better understand the genetic similarity of microorganisms between the sediment and water phases. Indicator bacteria were subjected to a molecular study, which consisted of PCR amplification and sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA gene using specific primers for faecal coliforms and enterococci, respectively. Results revealed that the Apies River had high faecal pollution levels with enterococci showing low to moderate correlation coefficient (r values ranged from 0.2605 to 0.7499) compared to the faecal coliforms which showed zero to low correlation (r values ranged from 0.0027 to 0.1407) indicating that enterococci may be better indicator than faecal coliforms for detecting faecal contamination in riverbed sediments. The phylogenetic tree of faecal coliforms revealed a 98% homology among their nucleotide sequences confirming the close genetic relatedness between river water and riverbed sediment isolates. The phylogenetic tree of the enterococci showed that Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are the predominant species found in both river water and riverbed sediments with bootstrap values of ≥99%. A high degree of genetic relatedness between sediment and water isolates indicated a possible common ancestry and transmission pathway. We recommend the microbial monitoring of riverbed sediments as it harbours more diverse microbial community and once resuspended may cause health and environmental problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi desenvolver um diagnóstico da qualidade da água do rio Parauapebas (Estado do Pará, Brasil), com base no monitoramento realizado nos períodos de baixa precipitação dos anos 2004, 2007 e 2009. Em 20 locais de amostragem ao longo do rio no entorno da cidade de Parauapebas, foram avaliados na água parâmetros físicos (transparência, temperatura da água e resíduo total), químicos (oxigênio dissolvido, pH, turbidez, alcalinidade, dureza, acidez, cloreto, DBO, DQO e fósforo, ferro e nitrogênio totais) e biológicos (coliformes termotolerantes). A partir dos resultados foi desenvolvido o Índice de Qualidade de Água - IQA para o trecho monitorado. Para interpretação dos dados realizou-se estudos complementares de análise de componentes principais, regressão múltipla e regressão linear, além de levantamentos de informações a respeito dos meios físicos, bióticos e sócio-econômicos da região. O IQA determinado para o rio Parauapebas foi de 40,01 o que o enquadra na categoria "Regular". Com as análises de componentes principais e de regressão múltipla identificaram-se quatro variáveis que influenciaram significativamente na variação do índice: oxigênio dissolvido, demanda bioquímica do oxigênio, fósforo total e coliformes termotolerantes, que explicaram 75% da variação dos resultados. A expansão urbana, especialmente nas direções N-NO e S-SO, atingiu as áreas próximas às reservas de mata ciliar, comprometendo, em parte, a qualidade das águas superficiais do rio Parauapebas.The objective of this research was to develop a diagnostic of the water quality of the Parauapebas River (Pará, Brazil), in the dry periods of 2004, 2007 and 2009. In 20 sampling sites in Parauapebas River, around of the Parauapebas City, physical (transparency, water temperature and total solid residues), chemical (dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, alkalinity, hardness, acidity, chloride, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, total phosphorus, total iron and total nitrogen), and biological parameters (thermotolerant coliforms) were measured. The results were used for the determination of Water Quality Index (WQI). As support to the interpretation of these parameters, a Principal Components Analysis (PCA), multiple regression and linear regression analyses and, a general survey of physical, biotical and social-economic of the region were performed. WQI for the Parauapebas River, in the monitored area, was 40.01, which classifies it in the category "Regular". The PCA and multiple regression analysis identified four parameters that have been employed in the WQI determination and that influenced significantly the variation of the Index: dissolved oxygen, BOD, total phosphorus and thermotolerant coliforms, which explained 75% of the variation of the results. The results indicate that the urban expansion, in especial in the directions N-NW and S-SW, has reached the areas surrounding the Riparian Forest, and affected partially the surface water quality of the Parauapebas River.

Background: Ozone is considered one of the most effective disinfectants that can inactivate resistant pathogenic microorganisms in which conventional disinfectant such as chlorine and chlorine dioxide faildue to its strong biocidal oxidizing property. Objective: The study aimed at modeling of ozone as a disinfectant of indicators bacteria in the drinking water. Methods: This work involved a series of batch experiments with raw water, taken from the intake of El-Nozha Water Purification Plant, Alexandria governorate. The ozone doses applied in this study were 1.2, 2.2, 3.4, and 4.3 mg/l. The disinfected effluent was collected at 5, 10, 20, and 30 min. The indicator microorganisms HPC bacteria, total coliforms, faecal coliforms and Streptococcus faecalis were examined before and after the ozonation. Results: The optimum ozone dosage applied in raw water to achieve 90% reduction of the indicator microorganisms was 2.5 mg/l. The optimum contact time to achieve 90% reduction of the indicator microorganisms in raw water was 8 min. By applying of ozone as post disinfection on filtered water, the reduction percent of the indicator microorganisms were 100%. This study estimated that the ozone cost was 1.76 piasters/m3. Conclusion and Recommendations: Ozone as a primary disinfection must be applied on raw water to reduce the formation of THMs due to pre-chlorination of raw water at present, in addition to effective killing power of ozone onto microorganisms that will improve water quality.

Microbial contamination of small streams in agricultural areas was monitored for two years. Microbiological indicators of faecal pollution (faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci were detected by standard methods based on the cultivation of bacteria on selective media). The obtained results showed that running contamination of streams from agricultural areas was not extremely high, but it showed marked seasonal fluctuations (the average values and maximal values revealed great differences). Microbial contamination also increased several times in relation to high precipitation. The water quality in three (and/or four) localities exceeded the acceptable counts of faecal coliforms and enterococci given by the Czech legislation (40 CFU/ml for faecal coliforms and 20 CFU/ ml for enterococci). In agriculturally polluted streams, there were detected more enterococci than faecal coliforms, and also some less frequent species related to farm animals (Streptococcus equines and S. bovis) or plant rests (E. mundtii, E. gallinarum, E. casseliflavus) were present. E. faecalis and E. faecium strains (these are the most common species related to human faecal pollution) were less frequent there.

Enteric pathogens are the most frequent cause of diarrheal illness, which account for an annual mortality rate of three million people and an estimated four billion infection worldwide. One way of preventing this is by ensuring proper sewage treatment. The study was carried out to provide data for level of microbiological contamination as well as baseline data for the future assessment and monitoring of pollution levels of sewage lagoons around Kenyatta university sewage treatment plant. It was also aim to find out the indicator organism that is suitable for the assessment and monitoring of faecal pollution. This paper contains the results of isolation, identification and quantification of faecal coliforms, streps, Salmonella sp. and Vibrio cholerae from Kenyatta university sewage treatments ponds. For the faecal coliforms, detection and quantification was done using the Most Probable Number (MPN) technique. The isolation and enumeration of faecal streps, Salmonella sp. and V. cholerae was done using standard methods. Correlation of faecal coliforms with Salmonella sp. and V. cholerae was 85% and 2% respectively. For the faecal streps, correlation with Salmonella sp. and V. cholerae was 78% and 12% respectively. This indicates that faecal streps should be included as indicator organisms of the potential health hazards of polluted water. Most international drinking water quality guidelines and standards include bacterial indicators as a measure of microbial water quality, and for compliance reporting. The results from the study support the idea of using both the faecal streps and coliforms as indicators of faecal pollution.

Las lagunas de Pom y Atasta forman parte del área natural protegida de flora y fauna laguna de Términos en la región de Campeche, México. Esta es una importante área ecológica ya que es el habitad de muchas especies nativas y migratorias. Estas lagunas han sido afectadas por actividades industriales y por descargas de aguas residuales. Monitoreo de nitrógeno, fósforo y coliformes fecales en agua superficial fueron realizados a lo largo de ambas lagunas durante las temporadas de seca, lluvia y nortes durante un año. Las altas temperaturas en verano (31 ºC) y mínimas en nortes (25ºC) fueron asociadas con valores de oxigeno disuelto (5.1 y 6.3 mg l-1, respectivamente) indicando también una probable relación con la actividad fitoplanctonica. El pH (8.0-8.2) y la salinidad (0.32 - 3.48 UPS) no mostraron variación significativa entre las tres temporadas climáticas. El nivel de amonio no fue mayor a los valores sugeridos para el control de eutroficación (0.1 mg l-1), mientras que los niveles de fósforo fueron de mayor concentración (2.0-3.5 mg l-1) que aquellos considerados seguros (0.01-0.125 mg l-1) para el medio ambiente. Las más altas concentraciones de N y P cerca de las áreas habitadas sugiere un importante contribución de nutrientes provenientes de aguas de desecho, asociado con la descomposición de material orgánico. La concentración de coliformes fecales durante la temporada de lluvias y nortes (8.0-26.0 MPN 100 ml-1) fue mayor que durante la temporada de seca (1.3-3.5 MPN 100 ml-1) sugiriendo un importante acceso por escurrimiento pluvial y aguas residuales no tratadas proveniente de las áreas cercanas al lago habitadas. La deforestación de manglares y la descontrolada actividad de agricultura afectaran la calidad del agua en ambos lagos en el futuro.

This study aims to establish the spatial distribution of stream water faecal coliform (FC) concentrations in specific winter recreation areas in the Northern Corries of the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. A total of 207 water samples were collected from 10 sites during two winter seasons (2007–2008 and 2008–2009) and analysed by Colilert®24 for the presence of FC, specificallyEscherichia coli(E. coli).E. coliwas not detected at Sites 1–7, above 635 m. Sites 8, 9 and 10 (below 635 m) had positive detection rates forE. coli, these being 32%, 35% and 31%, respectively. Results provide important data on the level of faecal bacteria in selected Scottish mountain streams, whilst also providing comparative benchmark data for similar studies proposed in other UK upland recreational hotspots. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study describes the new design and function of a modified version of a traditional slow sand filter. The Submerged Pond Sand Filter is built inside a pond and has a vertical as well as a horizontal flow of water through a sloped filter opening. The filter provides treated drinking water to a rural Indian village. The filter has functioned with minimal maintenance for five years without being subject to the typical scraping off and changing of sand as needed in traditional slow sand filters every few months. This five-year study showed bacterial removal efficiency of 97% on average with a level of faecal coliforms of 2 ± 2 colony forming units (CFU)/100 mL measured in the treated water. Turbidity was visibly removed during treatment. When water was retrieved from the filter through a manual pump for long consistent time intervals (60 min), faecal coliform counts increased from four to 10 CFU/100 mL on average compared to shorter pumping intervals (5 min). Though the treated water did not comply with the World Health Organization standards of 0 CFU/100 mL, the filter significantly improved water quality and provided one of the best sources of drinkable water in a water-depleted area, where only surface water was available. Furthermore, it is a sustainable treatment method due to low maintenance requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To ascertain the quality of drinking water, surveillance of drinking water quality was conducted in Bhopal. The water supply to water treatment plants (WTPs) is from Kolar dam and Upper Lake. There was no significant change in water quality at the Kolar WTP on a day-to-day basis except in summer, when the manganese content of raw water was 0.3-0.4 mg/L, which was removed during treatment. The treated water quality from Birla Mandir WTP was within desirable limits during all the seasons. Filtered water from Idgah WTP showed significant coliform counts, indicating malfunctioning of filter beds. However, after chlorination coliforms were absent. For Phulphukta WTP, residual chlorine at the sump was 0.8-2.0 mg/L, therefore finished water was free from bacterial contamination. The finished water quality of all the WTPs met Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation guidelines. Although the sump water was free from bacterial contamination, it was contaminated with coliforms at the consumer end, which may be attributed to improper maintenance of service reservoirs and contamination en route. The proper maintenance of the distribution network, awareness of hygienic and sanitary conditions around public taps and proper storage of water are prerequisites for maintaining a safe water supply in the city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mafikeng, the capital of the North West Province, receives water from two sources, namely the Molopo eye and the Modimola dam. Once treated, the potable water is mixed and supplied to the city via distribution systems. This study was designed to assess the quality of drinking water in Mafikeng and also to determine whether the water from the two sources has an impact on the mixed water quality. Physico-chemical parameters and bacteriological quality (faecal coliforms (FCs), total coliforms (TCs), heterotrophic bacteria and Peudomonas spp.) was monitored at three drinking water sites weekly for 4 months. The results revealed that the physico-chemical quality of the water was generally acceptable. The pH ranged from 5.7± 0.18 to 8.6±0.14, the temperature ranged from 18.3±0.69 to 25.1±0.69 WC and the total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 159.9± 22.44 to 364.4± 12.44 mg/l. These values are within the target water quality range for drinking water as prescribed by WHO, Department of Water Affairs and SANS 241. What is of concern was the microbial quality of the water. FCs, TCs, heterotrophic bacteria and Pseudomonas spp. were present in some of the treated water samples. The most significant finding of this study is that all drinking water samples were positive for Pseudomonas spp. (>100/100 ml). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was conducted to study the faecal coliforms removal capacity of downflow hanging sponge (DHS) reactors as a post-treatment for an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Three long-term continuous laboratory-scale DHS reactors, i.e. a reactor with cube type sponges without recirculation, a similar one with recirculation and a reactor with curtain type sponges, were studied. The porosities of the applied medium were 91%, 87% and 47% respectively. The organic loading rates were 0.86 kgCOD m-3 d-1, 0.53 kgCOD m-3 d-1 and 0.24 kgCOD m-3 d-1 correspondingly at hydraulic loading rates of 1.92 m3 m-2 d-1, 2.97 m3 m-2 d-1 and 1.32 m3 m-2 d-1, respectively (COD: chemical oxygen demand). The corresponding averages for faecal coliform removal were 99.997%, 99.919% and 92.121% respectively. The 1989 WHO guidelines standards, in terms of faecal coliform content for unrestricted irrigation (category A), was achieved with the effluent of the cube type DHS (G1) without recirculation. Restricted irrigation, category B and C, is assigned to the effluent of the cube type with recirculation and the curtain type, respectively. Particularly for organic compounds, the effluent of evaluated DHS reactors complies with USEPA standards for irrigation of so called non-food crops like pasture for milking animals, fodder, fibre, and seed crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]