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The aim of this study is to develop a valid and reliable instrument to measure the performance of schools in relation to corporate social responsibility based on teachers' perceptions. To this end, content and construct validity and reliability studies were conducted with the participation of 521 teachers from four different study groups. As part of the related studies, a comprehensive literature review on the phenomenon was conducted and the theoretical structure was revealed through open-ended questions to the first study group of thirty teachers. An item pool was then created in accordance with the existing scope and the type of scale was determined. Eight experts were consulted for the item pool and the item pool was finalised and a draft scale form consisting of thirty-one items was produced. The draft scale, with the addition of the administration instructions, was administered to the second study group, a group of forty teachers, and thus the pre-application was realised. The scale that emerged after the pre-test was applied to a total of 451 teachers from two different study groups for exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and validity and reliability analyses were conducted on the data obtained from the study groups. These analyses showed that the total variance explained by the nine-item, one-factor structure that emerged from EFA was 81.8%, and the construct validity of the scale was supported by confirming the emerging structure with CFA. Reliability analyses revealed that Cronbach's [alpha] and McDonald's [omega] values were 0.975 and 0.976 respectively, and these values, which were quite high, proved that the scale was a reliable scale. As a result, a valid and reliable scale capable of measuring teachers' perceptions of the CSR performance of the schools where they work has been introduced to the literature.

In this study, a valid and reliable scale was developed to measure parents' perceptions of their children's social development in physical education classes. In the first part of the research, the relevant literature reviewed and student-parent interviews were held. As a result of the data obtained from the interviews, a 30-item draft scale was created. The draft scale was applied to 30 parents of students, and as a result of the feedback received, 5 items were removed from the pool. The remaining draft scale items were submitted to expert opinion and the number of items was reduced to 22. The 22-item scale was applied to 240 volunteer parents for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and to 216 different volunteer parents for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). As a result of the analyses, the final scale consisting of 15 items and four sub-dimensions was obtained. The Cronbach's Alpha values of the sub-dimensions were found to be between 0.74-0.79. In the final part, the 15-item scale was applied to 540 volunteer parents. Accordingly, while it was observed that parents' PSDSPEL scores were higher in the sub-dimension of showing positive behavior, it was determined that male parents' perception levels were higher than female parents. As a result of the study, it was found that the validity, reliability and internal consistency coefficients of the scale were at acceptable levels.

This study aims to develop a valid and reliable scale for determining the self-efficacy of teachers toward context-based science education. This study employed a survey design. The sample has formed 433 science teachers working in Kayseri province in the 2020-2021 spring semester. Firstly, an item pool of 85 items was developed by reviewing the literature. Secondly, a five-point Likert-type draft scale consisting of 67 items was developed. Required arrangements have been performed according to expert opinions to provide content validity. Explanatory and confirmatory factor analyses have been run to provide construct validity. As a result of explanatory factor analysis, a structure with four factors as "Learning/Teaching Process", "Self-efficacy Resources", "Academic Self-efficacy" and "Planning Instruction" consisting of 47 items has been reached. Factors have been confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient has been calculated as 0.98. To provide criterion validity, the Pearson correlation coefficient has been found as 0.86 between the draft and criteria scales. Based on the findings, researchers have determined that the scale was valid and reliable, and they recommended that this scale should be used to determine self-efficacy beliefs towards context-based learning of science teachers.

Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, Canada offers two introductory calculus courses designed for students enrolled in science and engineering programs. Students identified as needing additional support based on their admission grades take the version of the course where students meet weekly for four hours instead of three. A new approach for the fourth hour was introduced in Fall 2019 splitting the class into smaller sections of 20-40 students to work in small groups on vertical whiteboards under the supervision of the instructor, complemented by peer tutors. This format introduces an active learning element that improves student performance and attitude. The project was first implemented in Fall 2019, although interrupted due to COVID-19. After returning to the in-person classroom, the whiteboard seminar program was reinstated. In Fall 2022 and Spring 2023, survey feedback was collected from both students and peer tutors for a more holistic perspective on the program. In this study, the results of these surveys are analyzed, focussing on four areas of measurement: students' satisfaction, learning calculus concepts and problem-solving techniques, the contribution of the instructor, and the contribution of the peer tutors. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three latent variables underlying student survey responses. The survey results suggest that interactions with the instructor, peer tutors, and active learning activities all contributed to students' enjoyment of the course and their perceptions of their own learning. We compared students' final course grades from Fall 2018, where the fourth hour was devoted to lecture before the program was implemented, to Fall 2019 and 2022. The data shows a decrease in the percentage of students failing the course and an increase in those earning A's and B's since the program's implementation. Additionally, survey results show that replacing a typical lecture-style hour with a whiteboard seminar improved students' attitudes and perceptions of the course.

The aim of this research is to adapt the 24-item "Learner Autonomy Scale" developed by Sereti and Giossos (2018) in higher education samples into Turkish by examining the psychometric properties of high school and secondary school samples, and to determine whether these groups are equivalent in terms of measurement invariance. The scale was applied in high school (n = 475) and secondary school (n = 395) samples consisting of 870 students. Different from the original four-factor scale form, EFA applied to both groups revealed a two-factor (factor load range: 0.308-0.775) and 21-item. Correlation values (r = 0.209-0.392, p?0.001) indicate that the factors are not strongly related. The factors produced adequate internal consistency coefficients ([alpha] = 0.706-0.866; [omega] = 0.708-0.871) and were validated by meeting the fit indices accepted in the literature for CFA. Measurement invariance tests revealed strong invariance for the structural and metric tests and partial invariance for the scalar test in high school and secondary school samples. More research is needed to determine why the intersections of items 19, 20, and 21 are not invariant. The main contribution to "learner autonomy" in this study is the adaptation and justification of a valid and reliable measurement tool for determining autonomy in the adolescent age group. The use of the adapted scale in different educational environments and in the examination of "autonomy" by adapting it specific to the field (science, mathematics, etc.) will provide important implications for further theoretical studies.

Reasoning for complexity is a fundamental competency in these complex times for solutions to social problems and decision-making. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the validity and reliability of the eComplexity instrument by presenting its psychometric properties. The instrument consists of a Likert-type scale questionnaire designed to measure college students' perceptions of their mastery levels of complex reasoning competency as well as the subcompetencies that comprise it. The instrument was applied to higher education students in different countries of Latin America and Spain. The questionnaire articulates four types of thinking: systemic, scientific, critical and innovative and consists of 25 items. The methodology used was instrumental and psychometric, which seeks to demonstrate the validity and reliability of the eComplexity questionnaire. The results obtained from the research were as follows: The exploratory factor analysis indicated a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin index (KMO) > 0.80, a significance of p< 0.05 and a Cronbach's Alpha value of 0.93. Likewise, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis was carried out and was possible to corroborate the internal structure validity of the instrument. In addition to Cronbach's Alpha coefficient, McDonald's Omega, and Guttman's Lambda coefficients were calculated to calculate reliability. With the results obtained it was possible to conclude that the instrument is valid and reliable, can be used in various university contexts to support integrated training necessary to address current challenges and contribute to educational research. It is recommended for future studies that the research can be expanded by using an instrument that can move from perceptual terms to measuring levels of complex reasoning mastery, but it is valuable to contrast with the students' perception to have a broader vision.

International student mobility is a complex phenomenon influenced by numerous factors. This study examines the prospect of China as a destination country for international students in the post-COVID-19 era. With qualitative data from 30 frontline international educators (support staff in international student recruitment and services) from 30 Chinese universities, this study has determined a set of "pull" factors that serve to attract international students to study in China and a set of "repel" factors that discourage students from going. On the basis of both the "pull" and "repel" factors identified, the participants anticipate important challenges for China's international enrollment in the short term, but stay optimistic about the long-term prospect. The "pull and repel" factors analysis is found to be a useful approach to examining the attractiveness of a host country to international students in a focused manner.

Learning a second language is a life-long process requiring acquaintance with a repertoire of language learning strategies (LLS). Despite copious research on LLS and their role in fostering autonomous learning, few studies have examined strategies employed when trying to master specific subsystems of the target language, especially grammar. Meaningful communication in a second language hinges on implicit or highly automatized grammar knowledge, which, given the limitations of classroom-based grammar instruction, must for the most part be developed by learners themselves outside the classroom and this can best be achieved through adept use of grammar learning strategies (GLS). Our knowledge of the GLS, however, is scant, an issue that can be addressed either by designing reliable GLS measurement instruments or revalidating the few existing ones. This study adopts the latter approach by investigating the psychometric properties of Pawlak's (2018) "Grammar Learning Strategy Inventory" (GLSI) in the Chinese context. The tool was administered to 923 English majors, and the responses were subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. We found that all seven strategy categories included in the original instrument showed acceptable composite reliability and discriminant validity. The paper concludes by suggesting further revalidation of the GLSI and proposing avenues of research that employ methodological innovations to shed further light on GLS.

The objective of this study was to ascertain the elements that influence the effectiveness of mathematics instruction in the 21st century for secondary school students within the jurisdiction of the secondary educational service area office Lopburi (SEAOL). The research utilized survey methodology. The study population consisted of 400 secondary school students from SEAOL during the first semester of 2022. The participants were selected using a stratified random selection technique. The research tool utilized in this study was a questionnaire, which demonstrated a high level of reliability with a coefficient of 0.934. The research employed principal component analysis as the statistical analysis approach. The findings of the study indicate that there are various factors that influence the effectiveness of mathematics instruction in the 21st century for secondary school students in SEAOL. These factors include the level of technology support from schools, use of technology, ability to use basic technology, ability to use specialized technology, knowledge of content, math is crucial, and variety of teaching methods. Additionally, the study reveals that gender, program, and education level have a significant impact on knowledge and opinions regarding mathematics instruction, with statistical significance observed at a significance level of 0.05.

The survey results show that students have low writing skills. One of the contributing factors is that students have difficulty developing ideas from writing, which causes the writing process to be slow. Apart from that, passive learning activities also have an impact on students' writing abilities. Based on this, the aim of this research is to analyze the influence of the Mind Mapping-based Project Based Learning (PjBL) Model on students' writing abilities. This type of research is quasi-experimental research (quasi-experimental) using a 2 x 2 factorial design. The population in this research is grade IV elementary school students, totaling 9 schools. The total sample size was 160 students. The sampling technique uses a simple random sample. The data collection method in research uses test and non-test methods. The technique used to analyze data is inferential statistics. The results of the research are that the writing ability of the group of students who were given the Mind Mapping -based Project Based Learning Model was greater than the group of students with low linguistic intelligence, the writing ability of the group of students who were given the Conventional Learning Model, after controlling for language knowledge. It was concluded that the Project Based Learning (PjBL) Model based on Mind Mapping can improve students' writing skills. The implication of this research is that the application of the Project Based Learning (PjBL) Model based on Mind Mapping can stimulate students' learning and stimulate students' thinking skills so that it has an impact on improving students' writing skills.

The purpose of this research was to analyze the confirmatory components of the computational thinking learning competency measurement model. The sample group consisted of 240 students in the Bachelor of Education Program in Computer and Digital Technology for Education in Years 2-4 of five of the Rattanakosin Rajabhat Universities. Data collection involved the use of a 5-level (Level 5 indicates that the student's awareness is at the highest level while Level 1 indicates that the student's awareness is at the lowest level) checklist questionnaire after which confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed. The results of the research found that the model created by the researcher has 3 components: knowledge, skills, and attributes which are latent variables, and which are consistent with the empirical data with Chi-Square values. The results are statistically significant at the 0.01 level (Chi-Square=47.680, p=0.112, df=37, Relative Chi-Square Ratio=1.288, GFI=0.970, AGFI=0.930, CFI=1.000, SRMR=0.035, RMSEA=0.035), which meets the specified criteria.

The procedures of carrying out factorial invariance to validate a construct were well developed to ensure the reliability of the construct that can be used across groups for comparison and analysis, yet mainly restricted to the frequentist approach. This motivates an update to incorporate the growing Bayesian approach for carrying out the Bayesian factorial invariance, as well as the frequentist approach, using the recent add-on R packages to show the procedures systematically for testing measurement equivalence via multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. The practical procedure and guidelines for carrying out factorial invariance under MCFA using a classic empirical example are demonstrated. Comparison between the frequentist and the Bayesian procedures and demonstration using priors are another two nuclei of the paper.

The study aims to verify the validity and reliability of a set of tests for measuring Indonesian students' reading literacy achievement that has been developed by the Center for Language Strategy and Diplomacy Development as well as the Educational Assessment Center, two institutions under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia. The construct validity of the test was verified using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the reliability was estimated using the composite reliability (CR) formula. The data used were responses from a sample of 6,539 students from 294 high schools in 34 provinces in Indonesia. The sample was established using a multistage sampling technique from the study population of 15-year-old students in Indonesia. The results indicated that the construct validity of the test was verified and the reliability coefficient was 0.805, which was defined good. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the set of tests is appropriate to be used to measure Indonesian students' reading literacy achievement. In other words, using the set of tests will establish measurement that can reflect the reading literacy achievement of Indonesian students.

Understanding latent variables is essential in EFL research. This article examines key latent variables, such as linguistic competence, cognitive ability and socio-cultural factors. These variables play a crucial role in shaping EFL learning experiences and outcomes. Researchers can use methods such as exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) to uncover these variables. By combining theoretical findings with advanced statistical methods, such research provides an understanding of the complex processes involved in language learning. The article points to the need for longitudinal studies and mixed methods to capture the dynamic nature of EFL learning. This approach could contribute to the development of more effective educational strategies that improve teaching practices and learner outcomes. The article also emphasizes the importance of considering the sociocultural context and developing culturally sensitive teaching methods to create an inclusive learning environment. Moreover, this article serves as a guide for future research and practice in language learning.

This study focuses on developing and validating a questionnaire to assess the integration of ICT by EFL teachers in higher education settings in Vietnam. Twenty EFL teachers from three language institutes participated in semi-structured interviews, generating 20 questionnaire items. Qualitative content analysis of the interview data provided insights into EFL teachers' perspectives on ICT integration. Additionally, a document analysis and literature review informed the questionnaire development. A total of 150 EFL teachers were selected to validate the questionnaire by completing the items. Exploratory Factor Analysis identified the underlying constructs of ICT integration. Grounded in the SAMR model, the investigation explored the perceived effectiveness of ICT and identified obstacles to optimal utilization in the EFL classroom. The findings contribute to understanding ICT integration in EFL teaching, informing improvements in language education practices at Vietnamese higher education institutions.

This article describes a new questionnaire, the "Diagnostic Inventory for Self-Regulated Language Learning" (DISLL), for assessing self-regulated learning strategies of students of English as an additional language. We discuss self-regulated learning models, evaluate existing questionnaires for assessing language learners' self-regulated strategy use, and present a rationale for the DISLL. We explain Zimmerman's (2000) three-phase model, adapted with simplified phase names: "planning, doing," and "reflecting." Every DISLL phase starts with a brief scenario to help learners judge how often they employ each strategy in that phase. Already completed are a review of the DISLL 1.0 by 18 international researchers, the step-by-step creation of the DISLL 1.1, and the profiling of vocabulary in the DISLL 1.1 to ensure the simplicity necessary for intermediate-level learners. We present an argument-based validation framework, to be supported by piloting the DISLL 1.2 in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Spain, and Poland and even broader piloting of the DISLL 1.3. Statistical analyses will involve quantitative methods, e.g., exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, reliability analysis, and confirmatory composite analysis. At least one site will also use qualitative think-aloud protocols. The DISLL will be released into the public domain for free use after version 1.3.

The consideration of students' emotional and psychological health is crucial to facilitate effective teaching and grading practices. This study set out to shed light on the interplay between self-esteem (S-E), cognitive-emotion regulation (CER), academic enjoyment (AE), and language success (LS) in artificial intelligence (AI)-supported online language learning. To this end, the foreign language learning self-esteem scale, the Cognitive Emotion Control Questionnaire, the foreign language enjoyment scale, and a researcher-made test were distributed to 389 English as a foreign language learners in China. Screening the data with confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling, the effects of S-E, CER, AE, and LS were identified and quantified. These results highlighted the important function that online courses assisted by AI perform in enhancing students' CER and AE. This implied that students who have cultivated a robust sense of self-efficacy are adept at effectively regulating their cognitive and affective processes in AI-supported language learning. Possible improvements in language education are discussed, as are the study's broader implications.

The main objective of this study is to examine the correlation between digital skills and their correlation with digital citizenship among students enrolled at a university in Peru. The research was carried out using a sample of 906 participants, encompassing individuals of various genders, with ages spanning from 17 to 54 years. The methodology of choice aligns with a non-experimental, cross-sectional, descriptive-explanatory design. The findings of this study indicate that the development of participation skills, whether in traditional face-to-face settings or in online digital platforms, significantly influences the formation of digital citizenship. The aforementioned observation holds considerable ramifications for the field of digital skills education, underscoring the imperative to prioritize and actively advocate for the development of participation skills in the context of the digital age. The importance of digital skills in our contemporary society is widely acknowledged. However, the connection between digital skills and digital citizenship is intricate and complex.

This study attempted to discern the factor structure of the achievement goal orientation and goal structure constructs across the domain-specific task of essay writing in an Iranian EFL context. A convenience sample of 116 public university learners participated in a single-session, in-class study of an essay writing sampling and an immediate post-task inventory completion. Cronbach's alpha reliability estimates for all the goal subscales ranged from 0.86 to 0.92, and the factor analysis results divulged that 33 items from the goal orientation and goal structure scale produced valid and reliable scores, with the seven-factor solution found to be well-fitted for the observed data. Principal component analysis revealed a two-factor model separating the goal subcomponent variables into a binary orientation and dichotomy of mastery and performance. Findings provided cultural and contextual support for the stability and applicability of the four-factor (2x2) achievement goal model; namely, mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance in specific domain of writing. The findings provided evidence that the three-factor goal structure is also invariant in the Iranian EFL context. All told, the findings imply the need for bridging the research gap on the interplay of person- and structure-related goals.

Assessment literacy's vital role in faculty effectiveness within higher education lacks sufficient tools for measuring faculty attitudes on this matter. Employing a sequential mixed-methods approach, this study utilized the theory of planned behavior to develop the Assessment Literacy Attitude Scale (ALAS) and evaluate its psychometric properties within the U.S. higher education context. The qualitative phase involved a literature review of relevant studies and existing self-report measures, interviews with stakeholders, and panel reviews to shape initial item development. Following the establishment of a conceptual foundation and a comprehensive overview of the scale's construction, our study advanced to the quantitative stage that involves factor analytical and item response theory approaches using data from 260 faculty across three public universities in the U.S. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was employed initially to obtain preliminary insights into the scale's factorial structure and dimensionality. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was subsequently applied with separate data and the findings largely supported the conclusions from the EFA. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses resulted in 15 items loading across two factors in a good model fit range. Finally, we used nonparametric item response theory (IRT) techniques based on Mokken Scale Analysis (MSA) to evaluate individual items for evidence of effective psychometric properties to support the interpretation of ALAS scores, including monotonicity, scalability, and invariant item ordering. The newly-developed scale shows promise in assessing faculty attitudes toward enhancing their assessment literacy.

This research aims to develop an instrument for the evaluation of impulsivity traits in children and to examine the psychometric features of the developed scale. The process of developing the scale involved three main phases: namely, item generation, evaluation of content validity, and analysis of psychometric properties. The study sample comprised 319 children (68 females, 201 males) aged 5-18, all diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), including 50 who underwent pilot testing. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were employed to assess the factor structure of the scale, resulting in an 18-item scale encompassing motor impulsivity, non-planning impulsivity, and attention-related impulsivity factors. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis "(CFA)" indicated a satisfactory model-data fit. The overall scale demonstrated high reliability, with Cronbach's Alpha coefficients reaching 0.863. The analyses indicated that the scale is both valid and reliable.

This study aimed to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool to determine the anxiety levels of parents with gifted children. The participants were selected using a convenient sampling method. The sample of this study consisted of 550 parents of gifted middle school students attending 12 Science and Art Centers throughout Turkey in the 2022-2023 academic year. This study utilized the "Anxiety Scale for Parents of Gifted Children," developed by the researchers in this study, which consisted of 30 items, to obtain quantitative data. A Personal Information Form was used for demographic information. The scale's validity was assessed through face, content, and construct validity, and its reliability was examined using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, item discrimination, and test-retest analyses. Expert opinion and a pilot study were conducted for face and content validity, whereas EFA and CFA were performed for construct validity. The data of 300 randomly selected participants (229 females and 71 males) were used for EFA, while the data of the remaining 250 participants (189 females and 61 males) were used for CFA. As a result of the EFA, eleven items were excluded, and CFA was conducted. The analysis yielded the following fit indices for the scale: RMSEA= 0.054, GFI= 0.912, CFI= 0.937, and IFI= 0.939. The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was .890. Based on the analyses, a valid and reliable scale comprising 19 items and five factors was developed to assess the anxiety levels of parents with gifted children.

This study aims to conduct the Turkish adaptation, validity, and reliability study of the Theory of Mind Inventory-2 (TOMI-2) developed by Hutchins and Prelock (2016) for 3-5-year-old children. The study group consists of 310 mothers with children in the 3-5 age group in Konya city center. Personal Information Form and Theory of Mind Inventory-2 (TOMI-2) were used as data collection tools in the study. After the TOMI-2 was translated into Turkish, the normality assumption was checked with the "Shapiro-Wilk" test. The relationship between two continuous variables was evaluated with the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. Exploratory Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Content Validity, Criterion Validity, and Reliability analyses were also used in the study. The findings of the analyses show that the Turkish version of the TOMI-2 is a valid and reliable measurement tool for children aged 3-5, with 60 items in the original form.

This study aims to adapt the Academic Entitlement Scale to Turkish culture and examine the scale's measurement invariance according to gender. The study was conducted with 372 university students aged 18 and 54 (I = 20.90). The study used the Academic Entitlement Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Narcissistic Personality Inventory, and Locus of Control Scale as data collection tools. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to identify the construct validity of the scale. The measurement invariance of the scale according to gender was examined using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Correlations between research variables were analyzed with the Pearson Correlation Test. Cronbach's Alpha was performed to measure the internal consistency reliability of the study. As a result of the analyses, it was determined that academic entitlement was positively correlated with self-esteem and external locus of control. In addition, it was revealed that the externalized responsibility sub-dimension was positively correlated to narcissism. The research findings indicate that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool within Turkish culture.

In the present study, the Teacher Formative Assessment Literacy Scale (TFALS), developed by Yan and Pastore (2022a), was translated into Turkish to examine the factor structure and psychometric characteristics of the scale in a Turkish sample. Data was collected from 318 teachers, of whom 168 were males and 150 were females, working in different state schools in a city in the Central Anatolia Region of Türkiye. As the first step, the scale items were translated and back-translated by experts in both English and Turkish. Afterward, experts were presented with the scale to check for consistency and accuracy based on the feedback received. A pilot study was carried out to establish the linguistic equivalence of the scale, followed by an examination of its structural validity in a Turkish sample. To demonstrate evidence of the confirmed factor structure of TFALS with 22 items, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. The CFA results demonstrated that the three-factor model of the TFALS-Turkishversion had adequate fit indices. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the total scale was found to be 0.93. The Cronbach's alpha for each of the dimensions of TFALS was 0.90 for the conceptual dimension (7 items), 0.86 for the practical dimension (8 items), and 0.88 for the socio-emotional dimension (7 items). Composite reliability coefficients of the dimensions ranged from 0.78 to 0.84. The results of this study provide important evidence for the validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the TFALS, confirming that it has good psychometric properties in a Turkish sample.

STEAM education with gamification, a method that integrates game elements into the learning process, has proven to be a powerful tool. It not only encompasses various forms of gamified education but also has the potential to captivate and inspire students, breathing life into the course material. This study aims to present a comprehensive summary of the research carried out in the domain of STEAM education, with a particular emphasis on gamification. The focus will be on analyzing studies published in the past seven years. A meticulous bibliometric analysis was conducted to investigate the patterns in the published literature on STEAM education with gamification from 2017 to 2023. The relevant documents were retrieved by using keywords related to steam and gamification in the title, abstract, and keywords of the documents. Thus, 34 documents were acquired from the Scopus database for bibliometric analysis. The review analyzes the rate of publication growth, identifies the papers with the highest number of citations, determines the primary sources of these articles, evaluates the productivity of authors, examines the leading countries contributing to the field, and identifies the prominent subject areas within the research domain. Thailand has the highest output level in terms of publications and citations, as inferred from the results of our analysis. The Ceur Workshop Proceedings are widely acknowledged as the foremost scholarly resource in their subject. We have identified the most important keywords related to gamified STEAM education by conducting keyword analysis. Factorial Analysis provides a visual summary of the complex relationships between various concepts related to educational technology.

Measurement invariance allows for the comparison and interpretation of scores obtained from the same scales at different times. In this respect, the purpose of this research is to examine the measurement invariance of the satisfaction with life scale applied to different age groups. The study employs the survey model, a type of quantitative research. The purposive sampling method was used in the research. This method is one of the non-random sampling types. This method collected data from 120 individuals under the age of 25 and 120 individuals over the age of 60 who resided in Ankara. The collected data were divided into two groups according to age: young and old. Measurement invariance was examined in four separate stages by performing Multiple Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis. These are configural, metric, scalar, and strict invariance. The data were examined to determine the configural, metric, and scalar invariance across different age groups by using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis. As a result, configural ([chi-squared]/df=0.84;p>0.05), metric ([chi-squared]/df=1.26; p>0.01), scalar ([chi-squared]/df=1.38;p>0.05), and strict ([chi-squared]/df=1.43;p>0.05) invariance are provided that the satisfaction with life scale has invariance properties for two different age levels. This research's application of the satisfaction with life scale scores to various age groups demonstrates measurement invariance and yields results with a similar structure.

The present study has aimed to develop and validate a protein concept inventory (PCI) consisting of 25 multiple-choice (MC) questions to assess students' understanding of protein, which is a fundamental concept across different biology disciplines. The development process of the PCI involved a literature review to identify protein-related content, validation interviews to iteratively validate and refine the created items (n = 26), and data collection from a large sample (n = 291) for statistical analysis. An expert interview was held with two different field experts regarding the content validity of the draft PCI tool, the suitability of the options, and the clarity of the items. Free choice format (multiple marking) was used to answer the developed MC items. In scoring these items, positive points were given to correct options, and negative points were given to incorrect options. Evidence regarding the psychometric properties of the PCI trial form was collected through factor analysis, group differentiation, internal consistency, and item analysis using quantitative data. The evidence collected demonstrates that the validity and reliability of the PCI as a measurement tool have been confirmed. PCI's scoring approach and the use of response patterns created by multiple markings in teaching are discussed.

This study aims to develop a scale to measure the design thinking process and to evaluate the reliability and validity of this scale. It fills this gap by introducing a 36-item scale specifically designed to measure design thinking abilities across the five key stages of the design thinking process: empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test, to provide an accurate assessment of individual abilities across these stages. Aligned with the well-established design thinking process, the scale comprises five sub-dimensions, each focused on a specific stage. It employs a 5-point Likert-type response format, ensuring nuanced feedback. Rigorous psychometric evaluations confirmed the scale's trustworthiness. Internal consistency within each sub-dimension was exceptional, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients exceeding 0.80 across all stages. Remarkably, the overall scale achieved an outstanding 0.95 Cronbach's alpha, signifying unparalleled cohesiveness and reliability. Validity was further established through rigorous statistical analyses. Exploratory component analysis (EFA) accounted for 60% of the variance, confirming the structure and demonstrating strong item-to-factor loadings (ranging from 0.31 to 0.74). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) provided additional validation, with all fit indices exceeding established benchmarks, solidifying the scale's accuracy and applicability. Beyond these impressive psychometric qualities, the study offers several key advantages. The concise 36-item format ensures efficient administration and analysis, while the five distinct sub-dimensions allow for targeted evaluation of specific strengths and weaknesses within each stage. This detailed feedback holds immense value for researchers, educators, and professionals seeking to cultivate design thinking capabilities in diverse settings. By providing a validated and reliable tool for design thinking assessment, this study empowers a comprehensive understanding of individual strengths and weaknesses across the five critical stages. This, in turn, enables targeted interventions and fosters the development of effective design-thinking skills in various contexts.

Volunteers are noteworthy youth development professionals in the 4-H program whose training translates into practices that promote positive outcomes among young people they serve. This study explored how contextual and programmatic factors were associated with volunteers' practices of the essential elements with youth. Programmatic influences included breadth of volunteer training, tenure in 4-H whereas gender and age were contextual factors. Results supported associations between breadth of volunteer training and the essential element of mastery; this effect was not found with other essential elements. Also, volunteers' tenure in the 4-H program moderated the relationship between breadth of training and practices promoting mastery, with stronger association between training breadth and mastery for less seasoned volunteers. Moreover, among volunteers reporting greater breadth of trainings in the past year, men reported greater levels of facilitating independence than women, an effect not found across the whole sample. Our findings suggest mastery as a relevant essential element retained in training and applied in 4-H volunteers' practice. Implications are discussed regarding volunteer training content and promotion of responsibilities for both new and seasoned volunteers, as well as consideration for possible effects of differences in gender role expectations influencing the practice of promoting certain essential elements.

The main objective of this study is to revise and validate the assessment of self-presentation skills of middle school students. The assessment is based on existing self-assessment scales and adaptively modified for a more accurate assessment of middle school students' self-presentation skills. Considering the characteristics of middle school students and teachers' assessment, we have reconstructed and adjusted the dimensions of the original assessment. This paper includes background research, scale design and innovation, scale testing, and scale reliability and multiple validity verification. In order to further verify the effectiveness and reliability of the tool, this study added the application of content validity and factor analysis on the basis of previous studies. The results of this study are intended to compensate for the limitations of current teacher assessment for middle school students' self-presentation. At the same time, this study also provides a basis for the development of middle school students' self-presentation skills integrated training programs.

Engineering education aims to equip children with the skills to solve and apply complex problems. Problem-solving processes in engineering require high-level thinking and mind habits. Habit is a term used to describe various aspects of intelligence. Engineering habits of mind are the values, attitudes, and thinking skills associated with engineering. This research aimed to develop a scale to assess the engineering habits of mind of children ages 5-8. The study involved 417 children in two provinces in the southwest and northwest of Türkiye. We performed Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for the scale's construct validity. The scale consisted of 35 items and six factors and explained 59.2% of the total variance. We called the factors "system thinking," "creativity," "optimism," "collaboration," "communication," and "attention to ethical considerations." According to the CFA result, the construct we obtain is reasonable (X[superscript 2]/sd= 1.97, RMSEA= 0.068, CFI= 0.93, TLI= 0.91, SRMR= 0.062). The item total correlations range from 0.43 to 0.66. We determined the Cronbach Alpha coefficient of the scale to be 0.94 and the test re-test reliability to be 0.87. According to the results, it can be said that the scale obtained can be used validly and reliably to determine the engineering habits of mind children according to teacher reports. The study contributes to the ever-increasing engineering habits of mind literature.

This study develops and validates an English communicative competence model for Korean high school students, in response to the need to redefine the relevant concepts and components of competence that are demanded by the rapidly evolving future society. Drawing on Celce-Murcia's (2008) theoretical model on communicative competence, this research conceptualized a model that could assess high school students' English communicative competence by examining relevant domestic and international studies as well as theoretical reflections. Expert opinions from a two-stage Delphi survey were compiled and incorporated to revise, supplement, and validate the English communicative competence among high school students reflecting Korea's English education environment. Following this process, the conceptual model for English communicative competence was reorganized into five sub-competences (sociolinguistic, discourse, linguistic, interactional, and strategic competence) and 15 corresponding subfactors. The content validity ratio values for the conceptual definition and factor structure of this model were all above 0.64, thus affirming the validity of the conceptual definition and factor structure.

This study aimed to investigate the perception of STEM students (n = 147) on using mobile Augmented Reality (AR) across gender and learning styles in physics online classes. It utilized embedded mixed-method research and purposive sampling. An instrument named Students Perception in Integrating Mobile AR in Physics Class was developed and has undergone a series of validations such as item generation from literature review, content validation, cognitive interview, pilot testing, and exploratory factor analysis revealing two factors, CFA with indices that are of acceptable value, and good Cronbach alpha ([alpha] = 0.86) for reliability. Mean, standard deviation, percentages, two samples t-test, and thematic analysis were used to analyze the data. Results revealed that all students have a source of internet connection as well as a device to use and most of them have a very stable to somewhat stable internet connection. Positive feedback was shown in terms of overall learning experience and perception across gender and learning styles. However, in terms of overall usability, females have more ease of use compared to males and kinesthetic learners only have a positive response. It was also found that there is no significant difference across gender. Moreover, the integration of AR in a physics lesson has received excellent responses from both students with and without prior experience in a classroom setting. All of the difficulties the students encountered were technological in nature. There are also opportunities to improve the integration of mobile AR in the technical and learning process. These results suggest that teachers should integrate mobile AR in online physics classes but should consider factors such as Internet connection, device, gender, and learning styles in developing the application.

The impetus of this study is to investigate students' attitudes towards online language learning based on their previous academic experiences and year of study, including the decision to major or minor (i.e., motivation). A total of 975 students completed a survey questionnaire consisting of background information, Likert scale items, and open-ended questions. The quantitative data were analyzed using an exploratory factor analysis and one-way ANOVAs and were complemented with qualitative data based on students' responses. Findings indicate that students generally want consistent access to online learning, and that students with prior online-learning experience or with a desire to take an online course presented a statistically significant more positive perception of online language classes. There were also differences in perception of success in the online classes between those students who intended to major or minor in the language and those who did not. The results further revealed a decline in perception of success in online classes with the higher-level classifications (i.e., year of study). This study provides baseline attitudinal data to be built upon in future research and informs stakeholders of language programs in their curricular decisions.

Over the past decades, the demand for scientific research to link theory and practice so that innovative solutions can be developed through research has steadily increased (Klees & Tillmann, 2015; Sandoval & Bell, 2004). In this context, the design-based research (DBR) approach was developed, which examines the research object and the research setting from multiple perspectives through a cyclical-iterative process (Shavelson et al., 2003; Reinmann, 2005). The connection between research and practice is not only relevant for school contexts, but also for early childhood education (Schäfers & Wegner, 2021a). Therefore, the project "Kleine BegInNa" utilizes the DBR approach. A preliminary examination revealed that early promotion has a great influence on the children's later school performance, yet that there is not any test to survey their competences. However, this is essential in order to be able to offer appropriate support. In the prototyping phase, a scientific talent test for pre-school aged children was developed. This test was validated in several cycles in the assessment phase (Schäfers & Wegner, 2022a). The last validity test for the elicitation of the internal structure by an exploratory factor analysis shows that both the loadings and the screeplot, output one factor. This one factor solution explains 43.56% of the variance. This may be the "scientific talent" factor, which needs to be verified in further studies and by confirmatory factor analysis. While Reinmann (2022) has established comprehensive standards for science and methodology in DBR, we also focus on what extent conventional quality criteria for qualitative and quantitative research can be applied to a DBR approach.

The objective of the research is to explore the consistency of specialized nursing competency models of nursing students. The participants in this research are 165 Year 4 nursing students at Boromarajonani College of Nursing, Chakriraj, Thailand. The data was collected using a questionnaire consisting of 45 questions, answered with the use of a 5-level scale. The questionnaire was evaluated by three experts, and the questionnaire's accuracy ratings ranged from 0.70 to 1.00. The internal reliability of the questionnaire was measured using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, resulting in values of 0.763 for educational excellence, 0.757 for socio-economic factors, 0.806 for lifestyle, and 0.814 for personal factors. The study's findings showed that competency. 1) Education throughout nursing student training. 2) The socio-economic context. 3) Habits pertinent to everyday existence. 4) Attitude towards the nursing profession. 5) GPAx represents the grade point average. 6) OSCE refers to the objective structured clinical examination. The confirmatory factor analysis of specialized nursing aptitude is consistent with the empirical data, Chi-Square = 14.226; df = 8; Relative Chi-Square = 1.778; p-value = 0.076; GFI = 0.974; NFI = 0.943; TLI = 0.951; CFI = 0.974; RMSEA = 0.069; RMR = 0.113. Each element has a standard element weight value of between 0.010 and 0.817, with a standardized weight value ranging from 0.010 to 0.817.

Motivated by the "emotional turn" in applied linguistics and the recent introduction of positive psychology in L2 studies, the present study aimed to validate and shorten the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ) for measuring positive emotions in foreign language learning and classroom settings. To this end, data were collected from 442 Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students from several major state universities using the adapted sub-scales of positive classroom- and learning-related emotions of the AEQ. To prepare the short version, five items with the highest factor loadings in each of the six sub-scales were retained, which resulted in a total of 30 items. A six-factor model of this short version called Foreign Language Positive Emotions Questionnaire (FL-PEQ) was corroborated, which indicated that this measure could adequately differentiate between enjoyment, hope, and pride in foreign language "learning" and "classroom." Additionally, internal validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the FL-PEQ were confirmed.

There is a clear need for highly competent health sciences experts. No instrument currently exists for assessing the generic competences of health sciences students. The aim of this study is to develop and psychometrically test the Health sciences Generic Competence (HealthGenericCom) instrument. The instrument development four step process has been conducted with a cross-sectional study design and according to the COSMIN guidelines. Face and content validity was tested by 13 experts, structural validity was tested with exploratory factor analysis, and internal consistency was evaluated by calculating Cronbach's alpha. The structural validity was tested using data from Finnish health sciences students (n=276). The content validity index of the whole HealthGenericCom instrument was 1 for relevance and for clarity. Using exploratory factor analysis a model of eight factors (with 88 items) was created: 1) competence in leadership, administration, and finance; 2) competence in people-centred guidance; 3) competence in health promotion; 4) competence in evidence-based practice; 5) digital competence; 6) competence in work well-being and self-management; 7) competence in collaboration and problem-solving; and 8) competence in societal interaction. The HealthGenericCom was shown to be valid and reliable and provides an evidence-based conceptual framework that can be used in developing curriculums and competence management.

The importance of understanding student attitudes has become paramount in the successful deployment of blended learning. This study aimed to examine the factorial structure of a scale designed to assess university students' attitudes towards blended learning. Using a descriptive quantitative research approach, the study included a sample of 889 male and female students from the University of Tabuk, located in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The participants were selected randomly from different academic majors and levels of study. The instrument employed in this study was the Blended Learning Attitudes Scale, a tool designed by the researcher and subjected to rigorous validation procedures. The researcher utilised exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to understand the latent variables the scale represented comprehensively. The study's findings indicated the presence of a three-factor model, encompassing participants' perceptions of the nature of blended learning, its perceived importance, and their willingness to utilise it. The combined influence of these three factors accounted for 64% of the observed variance. The scale had noteworthy psychometric features, as evidenced by its high-reliability coefficients and robust validity indicators. This study presents a reliable instrument that educators and researchers may utilise to assess university students' attitudes towards blended learning.

Although equality of opportunity in education is a current and important issue, most of the studies on this subject are based on theoretical studies rather than empirical studies. The main reason for this can be said to be the lack of a valid and reliable measurement tool in this field. For this reason, this study aims to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool for determining pre-service teachers' perceptions of equality of opportunity in education. For this purpose, data were collected from four different samples using a simple random sampling technique. First, a literature review was conducted, and qualitative interviews were conducted with the first sample on equal opportunities in qualitative education. After the item pool was created, the first application was made in order to determine the factor structure of the measurement tool. Data were collected from a separate sample to test the resulting structure and perform confirmatory factor analysis. Then, in the context of reliability studies of the measurement tool, calculation of the internal consistency coefficient, extracted mean variance, composite reliability and test-retest processes were used. As a result, a valid and reliable scale for determining the perception of equality of opportunity in education consisting of three factors and 23 items has been brought to the education literature.

A questionnaire for measuring Context University Skills and Workplace-Recognized Skills (LCUS-WRS) requires a validated and reliable instrument. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire to measure learning of context university skills and workplace-recognized skills, in order to carry out an advanced psychometric properties analysis of Work-Integrated Education (WIE) students and the skills of LCUS-WRS, including internal and external reliability. Methods: We conducted multi-stage random sampling, with a sample consisting of 728 students WIE from 20 rural colleges in Thailand. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed on a subset of the sample (n = 279), and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted on another subset (n = 449), both in different subgroups. Additionally, the researcher analyzed the internal consistency and temporal reliability of the scale in the instrument. Results: Using exploratory factor analysis with 39 items 6 factors and accounted for 55.881% of variance was identified of the variance for the CFA model. The model achieved a goodness-of-fit of chi-square (X[superscript 2]) = 582.907, df = 308, p = 0.000, X[superscript 2]/df = 1.90, GFI = 0.979, AGFI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.030, SRMR = 0.030. Conclusion: LCUS-WRS scale has solid construct of validity and excellent internal consistency which to analyze psychometric properties It has optimum temporal reliability. Therefore, the indicated that the dimensions of measuring of LCUS-WRS guaranteed its use in higher education institutions. Keywords: learning of context university skills, workplace-recognized

Sense of coherence (SOC) is a relevant contributor and predictor of the individuals' mental and physical health. There are a number of studies about SOC, but only two validation articles of the sense of coherence scale (SOCS) were found on adolescents and none on children. The aim of this research was to validate the SOC scale in youth under 18. We hypothesized that younger children and children without psychiatric problems will have higher SOC than older ones, and children with psychiatric symptoms. We also wanted to examine the factor structure of both the 13 and the 29 item versions of the scale to study which is more valid in child and adolescent population. 199 children and 198 adolescents were included in the study; the mean age was 14.3 (SD 2.1) years. The sample included average youth from schools and youth under psychiatric treatment. Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and Inventory of Life Quality (ILK) were used for validation of the SOCS. SOCS-13 was applied to compare SOC of children and adolescents. Children had higher SOC than adolescents in both samples. Males had higher SOC than females in children but not in adolescents. Psychiatric and behavioral symptoms were associated with a lower SOC regardless

Evaluation of child-friendly school (CFS) policies is essential to determine the achievements of school efforts in reducing violence cases. This research aims to proving the reliability and validity of CFS policy evaluation instruments in elementary schools with different locations. This investigation uses the Context Input Process Product (CIPP) evaluation model to confirm the factor structure or dimensions of several observed variables (items) to evaluate the reliability and validity of the CFS policy evaluation tool in elementary schools. The validity and reliability of previously created instruments are evaluated quantitatively, but this study utilises different subjects and study sites. There were 320 respondents, with 145 school principals and 175 teachers taken randomly. Confirmatory factors analysis (CFA) results show goodness of fit (GOF), and the model is acceptable. The CFS evaluation instrument can be accepted after eliminating several question items and modifying them. All items of the teal instrument meet the goodness of fit criteria in terms of chi-square and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The instrument for evaluating CFS policies in primary schools using the CIPP model has met a valid and reliable psychometric property test so that it can be applied.

The objective of this study was to develop a measure that possesses both reliability and validity in order to evaluate innovative thinking within the realm of education. To achieve this, the instrument's validity and reliability were evaluated through quantitative methods in two distinct phases. A team of educational experts conducted the process of establishing content validity and ensuring that the items on the instrument accurately reflected the intended constructs of creative thinking. Following that, the assessment of concept validity was conducted using confirmatory factor analyses. The aforementioned investigations resulted in the discovery of a five-factor solution consisting of 25 elements, all of which demonstrated scores beyond the crucial threshold. This successful outcome confirmed the presence of distinct factors representing different dimensions of innovative thinking. The study enrolled 1250 students from vocational education institutions as participants. The data obtained from the participants was subjected to principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis, leading to the development of a model that exhibited a good match with the empirical data. This indicated the effectiveness of the developed instrument in measuring innovative thinking capacity. In conclusion, the research effectively developed an accurate and dependable tool for evaluating innovative thinking in the realm of education. The gathering of positive data from the participants and meticulous quantitative analyses were responsible for this.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze factors that affect the behavioral intentions of undergraduate students to use blended learning methods. The research uses the three-tier use model (3-TUM) to explore the influencing behavioral factors of students at the undergraduate level to use LMSs. "The research was carried out at a university and consisted of undergraduate students majoring in business-related fields. Students responded to online questionnaires administered at the end of the semester concerning their experience with the LMS." A customized Moodle platform was used to measure the user's perceived usefulness, perceived satisfaction, and perceived ease of use with the LMS. Results show that interactivity in portal and self-efficacy have a direct impact on all second-tier constructs, while multimedia instruction influences only perceived usefulness and perceived satisfaction. In addition, perceived usefulness impacts perceived satisfaction. Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use significantly impact behavioral intention of students to use learning platforms, while the relation between perceived satisfaction and behavioral intention was unindicative. "The study confirms that the individual experience of users and the quality of the system affect the successful implementation of an LMS and its adoption by users."

Montessori education has existed for more than 100 years and counts almost 16,000 schools worldwide (Debs et al., 2022). Still, little is known about the implementation and fidelity of Montessori principles. Measuring implementations holds significant importance as it provides insight into current Montessori practices and because it is assumed that implementation might influence its effectiveness. In the Netherlands, it is especially important to measure fidelity because of the country's history of flexible implementation of Montessori principles. No instruments currently exist that are specifically designed to measure Montessori implementation in the Dutch context. This study aims to validate a translated version of the Teacher Questionnaire for Montessori Practices, developed by Murray et al. (2019), within the Dutch early childhood education context. Additionally, it seeks to investigate the extent to which Montessori principles are implemented in Dutch early childhood schools. Data were collected from 131 early childhood Montessori teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the Dutch dataset did not align with the factor structure proposed by Murray et al. (2019). Subsequent exploratory factor analysis led to the identification of a 3-factor solution, encompassing dimensions related to Children's Freedom, Teacher Guidance, and Curriculum, which shows some similarities with Murray et al.'s (2019) factors. Implementation levels in the Netherlands varied, with the highest level of implementation observed in Children's Freedom and the lowest in Curriculum.

The present study falls into the efforts to improve practices for addressing errors produced by learners in various situations involving the calculation of integrals. We attempt to clarify as precisely as possible the types of errors that secondary school students produce when using integrals in algebraic and graphical frames. Based on the synthesis of several works dealing with errors specific to integral calculus, we have been able to outline a typology of possible errors that can be produced by students in secondary school. We determine some subcategories for the three known categories of errors: conceptual, procedural, and technical. After administering a test to a random sample of secondary school students and conducting a principal component analysis, we were able to deduce that in the algebraic frame, certain conceptual and procedural subcategories dominate, with a notable advance for errors due to failure to recognize the integrand function. In the graphical frame, errors related to technical subcategories represent a major source of the erroneous productions of the students tested.

The study examined the role of self-efficacy and self-regulated learning on the effect of self-directed learning on academic writing problem-solving for EFL undergraduates. The study applied a cross sectional design to evaluate 213 students from the Departments of English Education and English Literature of a private university in Malang, Indonesia. Participants aged 18 to 24 years were randomly selected to ensure representative samples. This study assessed undergraduate students' writing problem-solving using custom instruments inventory of problem-solving in academic writing. Selfdirected learning, self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning are evaluated on different scales. Methods such as confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation models are used to ensure the instrument's validity and reliability. The study found that selfdirected learning had a significant impact on self-efficacy and selfregulated learning and on writing problem-solving. The study also found an important relationship between self-directed learning and the ability of EFL undergraduates to solve academic writing problems through self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. This research contributes to ongoing discussions on the relevance of selfdirected learning for personal and professional development. It encourages re-evaluating educational and organizational strategies to maximize self-directed learning's benefits and minimize potential challenges.