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This article examines the hydrodesulfurization process used to produce diesel with low sulfur content in Ecuador. The analysis covers the level of processing in the country, the quality of domestic diesel compared to other nations, and the technical and economic requirements of the process. It also explores the need to modify or upgrade catalysts to achieve deep hydrodesulfurization. Unfortunately, the review found that sulfur content in Ecuadorian deposits is very high, with 3.53 MMkg produced in 2018. Despite improvements in the country's refineries, diesel sulfur content has only been reduced to 110 ppm. Ecuador regulates sulfur emissions through the Ecuadorian standard NTE INEN-1489 (2012). This norm classifies the fuel into three types, diesel #1 (3000 ppm), diesel #2 (7000 ppm), and premium diesel (500 ppm), following the use of diesel both in the industrial and transportation sectors. However, Ecuador seeks to adjust to countries with stricter regulations, such as the European Union. The standard that regulates sulfur emissions in this community is Euro VI, which limits the concentration to 10 ppm. One of the challenges in achieving international standards in the hydrodesulfurization units of the Ecuadorian refineries is to modify or improve the catalytic systems. Trimetallic catalysts, both supported and unsupported, can help overcome this challenge by decomposing the refractory molecules (e.g., dibenzothiophene and 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene) found in deep hydrodesulfurization. These catalysts can handle molecules that commonly used catalysts such as CoMo or MoW cannot. Therefore, proposals such as using trimetallic catalysts to achieve deep hydrodesulfurization levels are techno-economic options for Ecuador. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on renewable energy as fuel in the cruise industry. It mentions that providers and NABU agreed that the efforts of the industry must be supported by improved political framework conditions in order to help zero-emission drives achieve a breakthrough, along with the inclusion of shipping in European emissions trading, requirements to increase efficiency.

INTRODUCTION: Production of emissions from small heat sources burning solid fuels in households in Slovakia is relatively high. At the present time, the operation of such devices are neither controlled nor regulated properly and effectively. OBJECTIVES: This work presents a research analysis of current monitoring and maintenance procedures and certified norms for all solid-fuel small-scale heating systems utilized in households. METHODS: The research compared data from over 13 countries in the European Union, evaluating information regarding certified emission limits, efficiency levels, normalized monitoring procedures for both fuel standards and heating system performance. A proposition is therefore presented for a new monitoring and inspection guide for solid-fuel heating systems in Slovak Republic households, where regulations, such as Ecodesign or the EN 305-5, were integrated. RESULTS: Using a mathematical-statistical model, the implementation of the proposed regulations brings an emission saving of almost 140 tons per 10,000 inhabitants for both central and local heating systems. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrated substantial opportunity in decreasing operation cost, prolongation of product lifetime, and last but not least, the reduction of health risks of local citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are air pollutants critical to ozone and fine particle production in the troposphere. Here, we present fuel‐based emission inventories updated to 2018, including for mobile source engines using the Fuel‐based Inventory of Vehicle Emissions (FIVEs) and oil and gas production using the Fuel‐based Oil and Gas (FOG) inventory. The updated FIVE emissions are now consistent with the NEI17 estimates differing within 2% across the contiguous US (CONUS). Tropospheric NO2 columns modeled by the Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry model (WRF‐Chem) are compared with those observed by TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) and Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) during the summer of 2018. Modeled NO2 columns show strong temporal and spatial correlations with TROPOMI (OMI), identified with biases of −3% (−21%) over CONUS, and +8% (−6%) over point sources plus urban regions. Taking account of the negative bias (∼20%) in early version of TROPOMI over polluted regions, WRF‐Chem shows good performance with updated FIVE and FOG emissions. Our model tends to under‐predict the tropospheric NO2 columns over background and rural regions (bias of −21% to −3%). Through model sensitivity analyses, we demonstrate the important roles of emissions from soils (11.7% average over CONUS), oil and gas production (4.1%), wildfires (10.6%), and lightning (2.3%) with greater contributions at regional scales. This work provides a roadmap for satellite‐based evaluations for emission updates from various sources. Plain Language Summary: Satellite observations of tropospheric NO2 columns provide important constraints on air pollutants from space, which have been widely used to validate the performance of atmospheric models. To gain better knowledge of the accuracy of the recently updated fuel‐based emissions inventory, we conducted NO2 assessments between a regional chemical transport model (Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry model, WRF‐Chem), with the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) and Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) over the contiguous United States. We find that model simulation results show strong spatial and temporal correlations with satellite observations across point sources, urban, oil and gas production, and rural regions. With updated emissions, our regional atmospheric model can reconcile with satellite retrievals differing from −3% (TROPOMI) to −21% (OMI) overall. Soils, oil and gas production, wildfires and lightning emissions can play key roles in regional air quality. This work provides an important baseline of a pre‐COVID year by which sharp changes in anthropogenic NOx emissions due to the pandemic can be assessed. Key Points: Updated fuel‐based NOx emissions for 2018 are now consistent with the NEI 2017 within 2% for mobile source engines across the contiguous USWRF‐Chem reproduces trop. NO2 columns over point plus urban regions within 10% but underestimates in remote area by −21%(OMI) to −3%(TROPOMI)Sensitivity analyses show important roles of soil (11.7%), fire (10.6%), O&G (4.1%), lightning (2.3%) over CONUS, especially at regional scales [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How does the often‐invisible nature of pollution affect people's physical health and psychosocial relations, and their well‐being near major industrial projects? Based on long‐term ethnographic fieldwork in Northern Alberta, Canada, this article explores this question by focusing on oil sands extraction on Cree, Dené and Métis nations' homelands with its environmental and socio‐cultural consequences. Looking at different forms of dispossessions and Indigenous concepts of relationality and home, the author argues that pollution should be seen as an act of settler violence instead of merely a by‐product of industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of environmental aging conditions on the structural and mechanical properties of fly ash (FA) filled epoxy composites with four different volume fraction of FA (i.e. 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4) has been investigated under four aggressive aging environments and aging periods. The crystallite size and microstrain of crystalline particle in the composite matrix is quantified from XRD analysis. The 10% FA filled epoxy composite under fuel solution retains the higher order of crystallinity and glass transition temperature. It is observed that the void content and actual density of composites decreases with increasing FA content. The mechanical behavior of FA epoxy composite deteriorated with increasing aging duration and reinforcement percentage. 10% FA-containing specimen gives the highest mechanical properties under fuel environment for any given aging duration. The 20% FA filled epoxy composite can also be used in low load bearing applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• After combining PtNi with Ni(OH) 2 , PtNi restructures. • The open-framework structure exposed more active sites for both HER and MOR. • Ni(OH) 2 contribute to obvious enhancement of activity and stability for HER. • PtNi/Ni(OH) 2 with an enhanced CO tolerance led to better performance for MOR. Due to the negative impact of overusing traditional fossil fuels on the environment, electrochemical reactions that can minimize the generation of toxic materials during the process, including hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and methanol oxidation reaction (MOR), have been drawing increasing attention. In order to get more outstanding catalysts for both HER and MOR, we combined well-defined PtNi concave nanocubes (CNCs) bounded by high-index facets (HIFs) with Ni(OH) 2 nanosheets via a facile hydrothermal process and successfully obtained hybrid PtNi/Ni(OH) 2 −x, where x means the initial mass of Ni(OH) 2 in the synthesis. Remarkably, after the combination, the smooth surfaces of as-prepared PtNi CNCs were transmuted into rough ones made up of PtNi nanospheres (5–7 nm), with Ni(OH) 2 nanosheets serving as the substrate. Therefore, benefiting from the merging step, the open-framework structure with more active sites exposed was formed. Besides, the unique synergistic effect and electronic effect inside PtNi alloy and between PtNi to Ni(OH) 2 , as well as the appropriate mass ratio of the two components make PtNi/Ni(OH) 2 -4.0 an excellent electrocatalyst with enhanced activity and promoted stability for both HER and MOR, which is superior to that of commercial Pt black and PtNi CNCs enclosed by HIFs. We believe that this work may potentially be applied in effective electrocatalyst construction and energy conversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies discussing applications of internal combustion engines running with different fuel types attract more attention of researchers nowadays. However environmental and enviroeconomic aspects of these fuels are as significant as employability and performance effect of them. So it is required to evaluate use of different fuels in internal combustion engines environmentally and enviroeconomically. In this paper an LPG fueled 2-cylinder SI engine was evaluated environmentally and enviroeconomically at partial load for the first time. Within this scope the engine has been firstly examined experimentally and then environmental and enviroeconomic parameters are calculated. Obtained emissions data in the end of the experiments are used to reveal environmental impact of the engine. An approach for environmental cost determination is also applied using emissions data, carbon pricing and engine power. In the end of the study variation of emissions, environmental impact and environmental cost with engine speed are revealed. The maximum environmental damage and environmental cost of the examined engine are determined to be 9.365 tCO 2 ·year−1 and 77.539 and USD·year−1 respectively while the engine power and specific fuel consumption are 5.604 kW and 311.877 g. kWh−1 at 4000 rpm value of engine speed. • Environmental characteristics of a LPG fueled engine is presented. • Uncertainty analysis of measurement is introduced. • Economic cost of the environmental impact of the engine is revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the methodology applied to the cost modelling of the uranium-thorium nuclear reactor cycle for PWR reactors as well as brief introduction to the environmental impact of the nuclear fuel cycle. The reactor core contains seed uranium fuel and blanket thorium fuel. In such a cycle, energy is produced in the fission of 235U included in the fresh fuel and in the fission of 233U bread from the fertile 232Th. A modified methodology developed by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency was used for the reactor cycle cost modelling. The method is based on the levelized lifetime cost methodology for a reactor cycle, which is directly related to the heavy metal mass balance. Contrary to the case of uranium-fuelled nuclear reactors, the cost modelling includes the additional cash flow for thorium fuel. The abundance of thorium in the Earth's crust is about 3-5 times larger than that of uranium, which suggests its promising potential as a nuclear fuel. However, this needs to be proved economically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative sources of energy are greatly needed to ensure the availability of fuels in the long run. Microalgae-derived fuels are among the viable options due to their potential to produce sustainable fuels. However, the costs related to the production of microalgal and alternative fuels are still higher compared to conventional fuels. To deal with costs and environmental issues, the blending of microalgal fuels with conventional fuels can be considered as one of the feasible options. Blending has a positive impact on many fuel characteristics including reduction of carbon footprint, costs, freezing point, viscosity, flow, heating and combustion. In this study, jet fuel from Nannochloropsis sp crude bio-oil was blended with Jet A1 in 50/50 volume ratio. The data generated from the 50/50 blend jet fuel were analysed according to the ASTM standards. Samples were tested after 30, 60, 90 and 120 days from the production day. It was reported that majority of parameters including Net heat of combustion, flash point, kinematic viscosity, conductivity and freezing point were compliant with ASTM standards. However, parameters such as density and total acidity were found not complying with ASTM standards. This study can have an implication on carbon footprint reduction because of the blending of fossil-based jet fuel and renewable-based jet fuel known as low carbon footprint fuel. The blending ratio can be beneficial for the green energy world in terms of costs and environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was developed the mathematical model of Machine-tractor unit (MTU) work dynamics based on the analysis of the forces acting at ploughing works. The model reflects the relationship between the operational and structural parameters of the MTU and the properties of the agro-technological environment and the type of fuel that is used. Modeling allows selecting the rational composition of the MTU and predicting the effective performance of its operation modes, depending on the parameters of the agro-technological environment and the type of fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emission measurements of black carbon (BC) mass were conducted on a T63 turboshaft engine, operated at idle and cruise power with conventional and alternative fuels, using an Artium LII-300 laser-induced incandescence analyzer (LII) and AVL model 483 micro soot sensor (MSS) photoacoustic instrument using the manufacturer's calibration for both instruments. These measurements were compared with elemental carbon (EC) determined by manual and semicontinuous thermal-optical transmission analyses according to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method 5040 as the reference method. The results indicate that both the LII and MSS instruments show good linear correlation with EC for the two fuels and two engine power conditions evaluated. The LII measurements were observed to be biased high (27–49%) and the MSS measurements were biased low (24–35%) relative to EC. The agreement between the instruments and the reference method was substantially improved by applying a calibration of the instruments against a common BC aerosol source. Test data also suggest that the two instruments show some sensitivity to particle size (or properties related to size), specifically for particles with a geometric mean diameter (GMD) <30 nm. This sensitivity is problematic, since new engines or certain combustion conditions in current engines will produce smaller particles compared with the T63 model tested in this study. Further assessments of instrument performance for particles within this size range are therefore warranted. Implications: Accurate black carbon emission measurements are needed to certify new and in-production commercial aircraft engines. Both the Artium LII-300 and AVL 483 micro soot sensor are currently approved by the International Civil Aviation Organization for this purpose. This study compares the two instruments against elemental carbon (EC) using NIOSH method 5040 as the reference using a T63 turboshaft engine. The results indicate that both instruments correlate reasonably well with EC, and the correlation substantially improved when applying a calibration against a common aerosol source. Sensitivity to particle size may be an issue for both instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The serious corrosion of carbon support in the Pt-based catalysts, resulting in their instability, is one of the most important technical issues hampering the wide application of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). In order to address this issue, TiO 2 , TiN, and TiC supported Pt nanoparticles (NPs) catalysts were synthesized using a simple polyol process and their oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity and durability have been investigated in acidic media of PEMFCs using rotating disk electrode (RDE) technique and compared with the commercial carbon supported Pt catalyst. The average Pt NPs sizes are 2.3, 2.3, and 2.6 nm for the Pt/TiO 2 , Pt/TiN, and Pt/TiC catalysts, respectively. Among these three synthesized catalysts, the Pt/TiC catalyst has the highest stability and best catalytic performance with higher ORR current, electrochemical surface area (ECSA) and mass-specific activity. The ORR performance of the synthesized Pt/TiC catalyst is found to be promising with higher area-specific activity (I s) of 252.6 μA cm Pt −2 and almost identical mass-specific activity (I m) of 0.16 A mg Pt −1 than that of the Pt/C with I s of 235.5 μA cm Pt −2 and I m of 0.17 A mg Pt −1 at E = 0.9 V in 0.1 M HClO 4 solution. Additionally, the Pt/TiC shows the outstanding stability with no reduction in ORR performance and 10.1% increase in ECSA after accelerated stress test (AST). Highlights • Support materials affect ORR activity and stability of Pt catalyst. • Pt/TiC catalyst has the highest stability and ORR catalytic activity. • Pt/TiC catalyst shows no reduction in ORR performance after accelerated stress test. • Pt/TiC catalyst has comparable catalytic performance to commercial Pt/C catalyst. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the managed forest of Canada, forest fires are actively suppressed through efficient initial attack capability; however, the impact of different factors on the suppression success remains to be understood. The aim of this paper was to analyze the influence of operational suppression objectives (fire detection, initial attack, and fire control) along with fire intensity, fuel type, fire ignition cause, year, workload, and homogeneous fire regime zones on the achievement of the fire suppression objective (fire < 3 ha) using the Forest Fire Protection Agency of Quebec (SOPFEU) as a case study. The overall success of the suppression objective was very high (88%) over the study period (1994–2015). Both detection and control had significant effects on the suppression success through their interaction with fuel type, ignition cause, fire intensity, and zone variables. When the suppression objective was not achieved, final fire size was influenced by control, fuel type, fire intensity, and zone. The paper highlights the importance of the operational objectives and of regional differences for both fire suppression success and final fire size. Our results can help forest fire protection agencies to better understand their wildland fire suppression systems for a better adaptation to the upcoming fire regime changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • This study examines the correlates of fuel consumption of naturalistic driving. • The built environment effect is through driving distance, speed and driver behavior. • The workplace built environment has a more important effect than residential one. • Job-housing balance may help reduce fuel consumption of commuting. Abstract Concerns over climate change and peak oil motivate examining the relationship between the built environment (BE) and individual fuel consumption. Most studies overlook BE characteristics at workplace locations. They often estimate fuel use based on travel distance instead of on actual consumption. This practice ignores other influential mechanisms. This study uses the naturalistic driving data of 660 personal vehicles in Beijing. We apply a structural equations model to examine multiple mechanisms under which the residential and workplace BE affects fuel consumption directly and indirectly through driving distance, travel speed, and driver behavior, controlling for the effect of the street environment along the commute route. We found that all three mediating variables are associated with vehicular fuel consumption for the commute. The workplace BE has the more important effect on fuel consumption than the residential BE, particularly regarding the distance from the workplace to the city center. This study highlights the role of job-housing balance in commuting fuel consumption reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the quality of produced coal size categories for energy purposes. This is important from the perspective of promoting clean coal technologies which aim at changing the perception of coal as a fuel friendly for the environment. This is specifically because hard coal resources in Poland allow the national energy security to be guaranteed on the basis of energy production based on hard coal. Fine coals upgraded at coal processing facilities in the separation process in fine coal jigs are mainly used in energy production from coal. In the article, an analysis of hard coal upgrading in a jig regarding the optimum recovery of a useful fraction in the concentrate (combustible and volatile matter) and non-useful fraction in tailings (ash and sulfur) was conducted. Based on the industrial testing of a fine coal jig, the granulometric and densimetric analysis of the taken samples of concentrate, middlings and tailings of coal was conducted in laboratory conditions. Yields of products were calculated in separated size-fractions of separation products, and ash content and total sulfur content were determined in them. Based on the results of granulometric, densimetric and chemical analyses of the obtained size-fractions, the balance of separation products and appropriate calculations, Fuerstenau upgrading curves which allowed the process to be evaluated and a comparison of the results of hard coal upgrading regarding the optimum recovery of the organic phase in the concentrate and mineral components in tailings to be drawn. The obtained results were evaluated on the basis of different criteria for changing the device's hydrodynamic operational conditions. The ash content and total sulfur content were analyzed as non-useful substances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Using waste paper as fuel for domestic heating is a beneficial recycling option for small island developing states where there are lacks of resources for energy and waste treatment. However, there are concerns about the impact of air pollutants emitted from the burning of the self-made paper briquettes as household air pollution is recognised as the greatest environmental risk for human. In this study, combustion tests were carried out for paper briquettes made in one Pacific island and three commercial fuels in Australia including wood briquettes, kindling firewood and coal briquettes in order to: 1) characterise the emissions of three criteria air pollutants including particulate matters, CO and NO x including their emission factors (EF) from the tested fuels; and 2) compare the EFs among the tested fuels and with others reported in the literature. The results showed that waste paper briquettes burned quickly and generated high temperature but the heat value is relatively low. Paper briquettes and coal briquettes produced higher CO concentration than the others while paper briquettes generated the highest NO x level. Only PM 2.5 concentration emitted from paper briquettes was similar to kindling firewood and lower than wood briquettes. Burning of paper briquettes and wood briquettes produced particulate matter with large average count median diameter (72 and 68 nm) than coal briquette and kindling firewood (45 and 51 nm). The EFs for CO, NO x and PM 2.5 of paper briquettes were within the range of EFs reported in this study as well as in the literature. Overall, the results suggested that using paper briquettes as fuel for domestic heating will not likely to generate higher level of three major air pollutants compared to other traditional fuels. Highlights • The first attempt to report emission of key air pollutants from waste paper briquettes. • Burning of paper briquettes emitted relatively high CO and NO x concentration. • Burning of paper briquettes emitted PM with large average particle size. • Waste paper could be recycled as briquettes for domestic use like other common fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Exposure to and the related burden of diseases caused by pollution from solid fuel cooking, known as household air pollution (HAP), has been incorporated in the assessment of the Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) project. In contrast, HAP from space heating using solid fuels, prevalent in countries at middle or high altitudes, is less studied and missing from the GBD assessment. China is an ideal example to estimate the bias of exposure and burden of diseases assessment when space heating is neglected, considering its remarkably changing demands for heating from the north to the south and a large solid-fuel-dependent rural population. In this study, based on a meta-analysis of 27 field measurement studies in rural China, we derive the indoor PM 2.5 (fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 2.5 μm) concentration for both the heating and non-heating seasons. Combining this dataset with time-activity patterns and percentage of households using solid fuels, we assess the population-weighted annual mean exposure to PM 2.5 (PWE) and the health impacts associated with HAP in mainland rural China by county for the year 2010. We find that ignoring heating impacts leads to an underestimation in PWE estimates by 38 μg/m3 for the nationwide rural population (16 to 40 as interquartile range) with substantial negative bias in northern provinces. Correspondingly, premature deaths and disability-adjusted life years will be underestimated by approximately 30 × 103 and 60 × 104 in 2010, respectively. Our study poses the need for incorporating heating effects into HAP risk assessments in China as well as globally. Highlights • Space heating contributes significantly to household air pollution in rural China. • Population exposure would be underestimated by ~40 μg/m3 for Chinese rural residents if neglecting space heating impacts. • Premature deaths and disability-adjusted life years would be underestimated by ~30,000 and 600,000 in 2010, respectively. • Considering health impacts of space heating is crucial for household air pollution mitigation, especially in northern China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Around 2.7 billion people in the world cook with polluting fuels, such as wood, crop residue, animal dung, charcoal, coal, and kerosene. Household air pollution from cooking with polluting fuels is recognized as a major risk factor for the disease burden. In this study, we examine the effect of using polluting fuels for cooking on the respiratory health of children in Pakistan. This study uses cross-sectional data from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13, with the sample size of 11,040 children under 5 years of age. Using logistic regression model, we control for factors such as averting activities, child characteristics, household characteristics, mother characteristics, and the unobserved factors using fixed effects. The results show that children in households using polluting fuels are 1.5 times more likely to have symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI) than children in households using cleaner fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safflower is an important industrial oil seed and bioenergy crop in semi-arid subtropical regions due to its potential to grow on marginal land and having good percentage of seed oil contents which is an important parameter for biofuel production. However, it is an ignored crop in Pakistan. In order to improve the crop productivity and reduce the use of agrochemicals for sustainable biodiesel feedstock production, an experiment was conducted for two years to improve the fatty acid composition and oil quality of Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) by the inoculation of Azospirillum and Azotobacter alone as well as in combined application with nitrogen and phosphate (NP) fertilizers on cultivars Thori and Saif-32 under field conditions. Separation and quantification of fatty acids were done on precise comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC). The results showed that fatty acid profile specifically monounsaturated fatty acids i-e oleic acid (C18:1) was significantly improved by Azospirillum supplemented with the quarter dose of NP fertilizers (SPQ) with concomitant decrease in polyunsaturated fatty acids by the respective treatment. Oil quality attributes such as acid value, saponification number, iodine value, refractive index and free fatty acid contents were reduced by the application of Azotobacter and Azospirillum in combination with half and quarter doses of NP fertilizers treatments (BTH, SPH, BTQ and SPQ). The reduction in these variables is positively linked with improved biodiesel yield and quality. It can be concluded that application of Azospirillum and Azotobacter not only reduced the use of NP fertilizers up to 50%–75% but also improved the oil quality in order to obtain environment friendly, sustainable and green fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the help of advanced technologies, district heating systems were gradually improved to increase fuel use efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. Several control strategies focused on the performance improvement of energy generation or distribution in the network. However, most strategies overlooked zone-scaled thermal comfort related to occupant characteristics, and there was lack of studies combined with heat trading concepts. This research presents energy cost analysis of an intelligent network model and heat trading to mitigate increases of energy use and thermal dissatisfaction in a district model. Advanced thermal control algorithms provide optimized supply air conditions responding to occupant characteristics in different buildings. A distribution model contributes to the reduction of energy consumption, and heat trading effects are analyzed to maximize energy cost savings in a district model. In comparison with a conventional model, an intelligent controller improves thermal comfort by about 16.2% for a clinic, 2.4% for an office, and 7.1% for a residential building, respectively. Also, a distribution model with heat trading concept saves total energy costs by about 24.7%, theoretically. In conclusion, the model has advantages that it properly responds to occupant characteristics to mitigate thermal dissatisfaction, and it has a great potential to reduce total energy costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable future fuels are likely to be produced by a wide range of processes, and there exists the opportunity to engineer these fuels so that they burn more efficiently and produce fewer harmful emissions. Such potential is especially important within the context of reducing the emissions of both greenhouse gases (GHG) and toxic pollutants that adversely impact air quality and human health. To illustrate how fuel design on a molecular level may be exploited to reduce these emissions, the combustion and emission properties of three potential future fuels, geraniol, diethyl carbonate, and a biodiesel (soy methyl ester), were evaluated along with a fossil diesel. The fuels were assessed using "smoke point" tests and a Stirling engine. The purpose of the demonstration was to highlight to a general audience several burning characteristics of some possible future fuels, and thus the potential for the development of clean burning "designer" fuels. During the 15 min demonstration, significant differences in the combustion properties of the different fuels were shown. For example, the conventional fossil diesel fuel produced a significant amount of soot in flame tests, whereas diethyl carbonate, which is a potential second-generation biofuel, produced visibly lower amounts of soot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The future sustainable production of chemicals and fuels from non-petrochemical sources, while at the same time reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, represent two of society's greatest challenges. Microbial chassis able to grow on waste carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) can provide solutions to both. Ranging from the anaerobic acetogens, through the aerobic chemoautotrophs to the photoautotrophic cyanobacteria, they are able to convert C1 gases into a range of chemicals and fuels which may be enhanced and extended through appropriate metabolic engineering. The necessary improvements will be facilitated by the increasingly sophisticated gene tools that are beginning to emerge as part of the Synthetic Biology revolution. These tools, in combination with more accurate metabolic and genome scale models, will enable C1 chassis to deliver their full potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laminar flame speeds of n-butanol/air premixed flames were measured experimentally and numerically at elevated pressures and temperatures for a wide range of equivalence ratios. Laminar flame speeds were obtained experimentally from the temporal evaluation of the flame front of spherically outwardly propagating flames at zero stress rate. The shadowgraph technique was employed to gain optical access to the constant volume combustion chamber. Flame propagation images were captured by a high-speed camera and MATLAB codes were used to process the images and calculate laminar flame speeds. Flame speeds have been calculated numerically using CHEMKIN-Pro based on a short reaction mechanism for n-butanol oxidation, which was derived from a previously published full reaction mechanism. Numerical predictions were in qualitative agreement with experimental data. The effects of initial pressure and temperature elevation were analyzed. Also, the effect of simultaneous elevation of initial pressures and temperatures is documented. For all experimental conditions, the maximum flame speed was found at around equivalence ratio 1.1. In general, flame speeds decreased with the elevation of initial pressure and increased with initial temperature elevation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aviation emits pollutants that affect the climate, including CO2 and NOx, NOx indirectly so, through the formation of tropospheric ozone and reduction of ambient methane. To improve the fuel performance of engines, combustor temperatures and pressures often increase, increasing NOx emissions. Conversely, combustor modifications to reduce NOx may increase CO2. Hence, a technology trade-off exists, which also translates to a trade-off between short-lived climate forcers and a long-lived greenhouse gas, CO2. Moreover, the NOx-O3-CH4 system responds in a nonlinear manner, according to both aviation emissions and background NOx. A simple climate model was modified to incorporate nonlinearities parametrized from a complex chemistry model. Case studies showed that for a scenario of a 20% reduction in NOx emissions the consequential CO2 penalty of 2% actually increased the total radiative forcing (RF). For a 2% fuel penalty, NOx emissions needed to be reduced by >43% to realize an overall benefit. Conversely, to ensure that the fuel penalty for a 20% NOx emission reduction did not increase overall forcing, a 0.5% increase in CO2 was found to be the "break even" point. The time scales of the climate effects of NOx and CO2 are quite different, necessitating careful analysis of proposed emissions trade-offs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planted and invading non-native plant species can alter fire regimes through changes in fuel loads and in the structure and continuity of fuels, potentially modifying the flammability of native plant communities. Such changes are not easily predicted and deserve system-specific studies. In several regions of the southern hemisphere, exotic pines have been extensively planted in native treeless areas for forestry purposes and have subsequently invaded the native environments. However, studies evaluating alterations in flammability caused by pines in Patagonia are scarce. In the forest-steppe ecotone of northwestern Patagonia, we evaluated fine fuels structure and simulated fire behavior in the native shrubby steppe, pine plantations, pine invasions, and mechanically removed invasions to establish the relative ecological vulnerability of these forestry and invasion scenarios to fire. We found that pine plantations and their subsequent invasion in the Patagonian shrubby steppe produced sharp changes in fine fuel amount and its vertical and horizontal continuity. These changes in fuel properties have the potential to affect fire behavior, increasing fire intensity by almost 30 times. Pruning of basal branches in plantations may substantially reduce fire hazard by lowering the probability of fire crowning, and mechanical removal of invasion seems effective in restoring original fuel structure in the native community. The current expansion of pine plantations and subsequent invasions acting synergistically with climate warming and increased human ignitions warrant a highly vulnerable landscape in the near future for northwestern Patagonia if no management actions are undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The control of toxic chromate (Cr6+) formation is still a significant challenge in solid fuel combustion. In particular, the mechanism of chromium transformation from Cr3+ to chromate or other unoxidized forms remains unclear. The present study confirms the formation of a significant unoxidized Cr-containing compound CaCr2O4(Cr3+) during solid fuel combustion. Experiments were conducted, for the first time, to clarify the mechanism of CaCr2O4 oxidation, which is quite different from Cr2O2 oxidation. The findings demonstrate that CaCr2O4 was formed at temperatures above 1200 K, through rapid decomposition of CaCrO4 or slow and direct interaction between CaO and Cr2O2. Compared to Cr2O3, CaCr2O4 could be oxidized at lower temperatures under the influence of free CaO. In the absence of free CaO, the oxidation of CaCr2O4 was minimal; however, in the presence of CaSO[sub 4], calcium in the form of CaCr2O4 participated in the oxidation of CaCr2O4. Thus, chromium in the form of CaCr2O4 was more likely to be oxidized when CaCr2O4-containing fly ash was reheated. Fortunately, CaCr2O4 showed slight basicity on the surface, allowing it to react with acidic gases. Accordingly, measures were proposed to suppress the oxidation of CaCr2O4 by stimulating the reactions between CaCr2O4 and acidic substances, like SO2 and Si/Al-compounds. These compounds competed with chromium at high temperatures to react with calcium in the fly ash and in CaCr2O4. As a result, the unoxidized chromium was transformed into highly stable Cr2O2 or Ca3Cr2 (SiO4)3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated alternative planning can control climate change drivers and mitigate or neutralize the adverse impacts of the changing climate on the transportation energy sector. In this article, we introduced an infrastructure of alternative fuel as a synergistic approach to climate-adaptation and -mitigation, and advanced a quantitative method to simulate the dependency of travel behavior on fuel availability when the infrastructure of transportation energy is stressed or under attack. Our approach allows both commuters traveling behavior and properties of transportation energy system to interact. Featuring a multi-stage mathematical program, the proposed model was used to study the resilience of New York City's transportation energy sector in the face of a range of climatic extremes. We found the impact of the changing climate on energy sector is major and worsening over time. The modeling results also reveal spatial distribution of vulnerable elements in both transportation and fueling infrastructures, the system's overall resilience in time of disaster, and the daily-commuters impact of vulnerable energy infrastructure. The modeling results are crucial to successful integrated planning response to climate-adaptation and -mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soils constitute one of the most valuable resources on earth, especially because soil is renewable on human time scales. During the 20th century, a period marked by a widespread rural exodus and land abandonment, fire suppression policies were adopted facilitating the accumulation of fuel in forested areas, exacerbating the effects of wildfires, leading to severe degradation of soils. Prescribed fires emerged as an option for protecting forests and their soils from wildfires through the reduction of fuels levels. However such fires can serve other objectives, including stimulating the regeneration of a particular plant species, maintaining biological diversity or as a tool for recovering grasslands in encroached lands. This paper reviews studies examining the short- and long- term impacts of prescribed fires on the physical, chemical and biological soil properties; in so doing, it provides a summary of the benefits and drawbacks of this technique, to help determine if prescribed fires can be useful for managing the landscape. From the study conducted, we can affirm that prescribed fires affects soil properties but differ greatly depending on soil initial characteristics, vegetation or type of fire. Also, it is possible to see that soil's physical and biological properties are more strongly affected by prescribed fires than are its chemical properties. Finally, we conclude that prescribed fires clearly constitute a disturbance on the environment (positive, neutral or negative depending on the soil property studied), but most of the studies reviewed report a good recovery and their effects could be less pronounced than those of wildfires because of the limited soil heating and lower fire intensity and severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hazardous fuels reduction treatments often reduce the likelihood of undesirable fire behavior (e.g. crown fire) through some combination of tree thinning and surface fuel reduction. However, fuels treatment effectiveness declines over time as fuels re-accumulate and new tree cohorts of trees establish and grow. Fuels treatment longevity therefore depends in part on post treatment tree regeneration rates, which vary depending on characteristics of sites and treatments as well as on stand composition. We used a chronosequence of 3–12 year old fuels treatments to investigate the impact of site (“wet” north aspects versus “dry” south aspects), treatment type (thinning with and without follow up slash burning), and stand composition on conifer regeneration following treatments in stands of ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa Lawson & C. Lawson) and Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco var. glauca [Beissn.] Franco) in Colorado, USA. We found conifer regeneration density was >500 trees ha −1 on average by 10 years post treatment. While stands on north aspects had twice the regeneration density of those on south aspects, the rate of increase since treatment was similar. Instead, there was significantly more regeneration on north aspects because these stands contained a considerable amount of Douglas-fir, which was largely absent on south aspects. Ponderosa pine regeneration density increased with time since treatment, while Douglas-fir regeneration density did not, which suggests that treatments promoted reproduction of ponderosa pine. Conversely, Douglas-fir regeneration density was related to the amount of Douglas-fir basal area in stands, which was not the case for ponderosa pine, probably because all stands had ample amounts of ponderosa pine basal area. There was no difference in regeneration density between burned and unburned stands. Our results highlight the influence of stand composition and site characteristics on tree regeneration following fuels treatments. In this study, fuels treatments acted much like shelterwood regeneration treatments for ponderosa pine, pairing favorable establishment environments for this species with a seed source. This resulted in ponderosa pine trees establishing even on relatively dry south aspects, while Douglas-fir regeneration may have been inhibited by seed availability and was largely confined to wetter north aspects. Despite similar tree regeneration rates across aspects, fuels treatment effects may nonetheless deteriorate more quickly on north aspects because of this Douglas-fir regeneration, much of which predated treatments. Indeed, advance regeneration was common in all of our stands, suggesting the longevity of fuels treatment effects will depend substantially on whether these trees are eventually able to release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anion exchange membrane fuel cells can potentially revolutionize energy storage and delivery; however, their commercial development is hampered by a significant technological impedance: the chemical decomposition of the anion exchange membranes during operation. The hydroxide anions, while transported from the cathode to the anode, attack the positively charged functional groups in the polymer membrane, neutralizing it and suppressing its anion-conducting capability. In recent years, several new quaternary ammonium salts have been proposed to address this challenge, but while they perform well in ex-situ chemical studies, their performance is very limited in real fuel cell studies. Here, we use experimental work, corroborated by molecular dynamics modeling to show that water concentration in the environment of the hydroxide anion, as well as temperature, significantly impact its reactivity. We compare different quaternary ammonium salts that have been previously studied and test their stabilities in the presence of relatively low hydroxide concentration in the presence of different amounts of solvating water molecules, as well as different temperatures. Remarkably, with the right amount of water and at low enough temperatures, even quaternary ammonium salts which are considered “unstable”, present significantly improved lifetime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary theme of this study is the cost-effectiveness of fuel treatments at multiple scales of investment. We focused on the nexus of fuel management and suppression response planning, designing spatial fuel treatment strategies to incorporate landscape features that provide control opportunities that are relevant to fire operations. Our analysis explored the frequency and magnitude of fire-treatment encounters, which are critical determinants of treatment efficacy. Additionally, we examined avoided area burned, avoided suppression costs, and avoided damages, and combined all three under the umbrella of leverage to explore multiple dimensions with which to characterize return on investment. We chose the Sierra National Forest, California, USA, as our study site, due to previous work providing relevant data and analytical products, and because it has the potential for large, long-duration fires and corresponding potential for high suppression expenditures. Modeling results generally confirmed that fire-treatment encounters are rare, such that median suppression cost savings are zero, but in extreme years, savings can more than offset upfront investments. Further, reductions in risk can expand areas where moderated suppression response would be appropriate, and these areas can be mapped in relation to fire control opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As lifecycle emissions accounting becomes more widely used in policy, it is important to understand how it has been applied. This paper analyses policy-making for two U.S. fuel regulations—the federal Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) and the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS)—that were pioneering not only in using life cycle assessment (LCA) in performance-based environmental regulations, but especially for including emissions from indirect land use change (ILUC). The case studies in this paper focus, in particular, on the decision to include ILUC in lifecycle emissions accounting. Tracing the development of these policies shows the key role of environmental policy entrepreneurs in advocating for ILUC emissions accounting during policy formulation. Moreover, it highlights a paradox in the use of science: although ILUC policy proponents were motivated by best available research, they were also politically enabled by scientific uncertainty and lack of understanding. Understanding this political dimension of decision-making is valuable for scholars as well as practitioners facing similar decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is generally assumed that severe disturbances predispose damaged forests to high fire hazard by creating heavy fuel loading conditions. Of special concern is the perception that surface fuel loadings become high as recently killed trees deposit foliage and woody material on the ground and that these high fuel loadings may cause abnormally severe fires. This study evaluated effects of severe, exogenous disturbance events, namely fire and beetles, on future fuel conditions through biannual field collections. We measured surface fuel deposition and accumulation rates for a number of forest types after severe wildfires, Douglas-fir beetle outbreaks, and mountain pine beetle outbreaks to quantitatively describe fuel dynamics for up to 10 years after the disturbance. Fuel deposition was measured from semi-annual collections of fallen biomass sorted into six fuel components (fallen foliage, twigs, branches, large branches, logs, and all other material) from a network of seven, one meter square litter traps established on 15 sites across the northern Rocky Mountains USA. We also measured fuel loadings of the same six fuel components on each plot every year until the end of the study. Results show that most foliage material fell within the first one to two years after disturbance and surface fuel loadings did not appear to increase substantially at any point during the 10 years of this study. Large woody material greater than 75 mm diameter was found infrequently in the litter traps. Our results suggest that there is little increase in fire hazard during the first 10 years after severe disturbance in the study sites sampled for this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuel treatments in ponderosa pine forests of the northern Rocky Mountains are commonly used to modify fire behavior, but it is unclear how different fuel treatments impact the subsequent production and distribution of aboveground biomass, especially in the long term. This research evaluated aboveground biomass responses 23 years after treatment in two silvicultural installations with different cutting and underburning prescriptions in western Montana. The thinning installation included control (no treatment), thin/no burn, thin/spring burn, and thin/fall burn treatments. The shelterwood installation included control, cut/no burn, cut/wet burn, and cut/dry burn treatments. Across all fuel treatments in both the thinning and shelterwood installations, tree biomass had recovered to pre-harvest levels by 2015, or 23 years post-treatment. In the thinning, total aboveground and live-tree biomass were greatest in the control, but did not differ among the three thinned fuel treatments. Forest floor biomass was lower in the two burned treatments relative to the two unburned treatments. Seedling, vegetation, stump, and snag biomass did not differ among the four treatments. In the shelterwood, total aboveground and live-tree biomass were both greater in the unburned treatments relative to the burned treatments. Forest floor and snag biomass also tended to be lower in the burned treatments. Seedling, vegetation, and stump biomass were similar across all treatments. This research shows that tree biomass in ponderosa pine stands subjected to common fuels treatments can recover to pre-harvest levels in less than 23 years, while still exhibiting reduced stand densities that promote forest restoration objectives. Burgeoning biomass at the seedling layer suggests that additional understory treatments are necessary in order to abate ladder fuel development and sustain resistance to high-severity wildfire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A laboratory experimental program addressing fire spread in fuel beds composed of dead foliage litter and vertically placed quasi-live branches, representative of many natural fuel complexes, was carried out for either still-air or wind conditions. Fuel-bed characteristics, fire spread rate, flame geometry, and fuel consumption were assessed and empirical models for estimating several parameters were developed. Weighted fuel moisture content (18%-163%) provided good estimates of fire-behaviour characteristics and accounted for most of the variation in still-air and wind-driven spread rate (0.1-1.3 m·min−1). When predicting still-air fire spread rate, fuel height was the most relevant fuel-bed structural parameter and fuel type had significant influence, whereas for wind-driven spread, the effect of foliar fuel-bed density was dominant and fuel type became irrelevant. Flame length (0.4-2.2 m) increased from still-air to wind-assisted (8 km·h−1) fire spread, but its height remained constant. The fraction of total fuel load and mean woody fuel diameter consumed by fire were reasonably predicted from weighted fuel moisture content alone, but predictions for the latter variable improved substantially by adding foliar fuel load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The University of Denver repeated its 2013 fuel specific gaseous and particle emission measurements on two California heavy-duty vehicle fleets. In 2015 1456 measurements at the Port of Los Angeles and 694 measurements at the Cottonwood weigh station in northern California were collected. The Port fleet changed little since 2013, increasing the average age (+1.8 years), accompanied by an increase in particle mass (PM) by +266% (0.03 ± 0.01 to 0.11 ± 0.01 gPM/kg of fuel) and black carbon (BC) by +300% (0.02 ± 0.003 to 0.08 ± 0.01 gBC/kg of fuel). Particle number (PN) also increased (1.5 × 1014 ± 2.5 × 1013 to 2.8 × 1014 ± 2.8 × 1013 PN/kg of fuel) by a smaller percentage (+87%). Chassis model year 2008 and 2009 vehicles currently dominate the fleet, accounting for the majority of these increases. The long-haul Cottonwood fleet decreased in fleet age (-0.6 model years), where half the decreases in fuel specific PM (-66%), BC (-65%), and PN (-19%) emissions are due to the newer fleet; an increased fraction of pre-2008 chassis model year vehicles with retrofit diesel particulate filters (DPFs) account for the remaining reductions. These opposing emissions trends emphasize the importance of fully functional DPFs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the spatio-temporal trends obtained from decade long (Jan 2003–Dec 2014) satellite observational data of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) on carbon monoxide (CO) concentration over the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) region. The time sequence plots of columnar CO levels over the western, central and eastern IGP regions reveal marked seasonal behaviour, with lowest CO levels occurring during the monsoon months and the highest CO levels occurring during the pre-monsoon period. A negative correlation between CO levels and rainfall is observed. CO vertical profiles show relatively high values in the upper troposphere at ∼200 hPa level during the monsoon months, thus suggesting the role of convective transport and advection in addition to washout behind the decreased CO levels during this period. MOPITT and AIRS observations show a decreasing trend of 9.6 × 10 15 and 1.5 × 10 16 molecules cm −2 yr −1 , respectively, in columnar CO levels over the IGP region. The results show the existence of a spatial gradient in CO from the eastern (higher levels) to western IGP region (lower levels). Data from the Census of India on the number of households using various cooking fuels in the IGP region shows the prevalence of biomass-fuel (i.e. firewood, crop residue, cowdung etc.) use over the eastern and central IGP regions and that of liquefied petroleum gas over the western IGP region. CO emission estimates from cooking activity over the three IGP regions are found to be in the order east > central > west, which support the existence of the spatial gradient in CO from eastern to the western IGP region. Our results support the intervention of present Indian government on limiting the use of biomass-fuels in domestic cooking to achieve the benefits in terms of the better air quality, household health and regional/global climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper empirically investigates the effect of energy use on economic growth throughout different stages of development. Along with direct effects, energy is allowed to influence income growth indirectly by capital accumulation through input substitution. We find that energy use affects economic growth primarily through the capital channel and that this result varies substantially with regard to the country's income level. For middle-income countries including the quintet of large emerging economies – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa – an increase in energy use drives capital accumulation, which favors economic growth. On the contrary, for high-income countries, a higher energy input tends to withdraw productive resources from capital accumulation, harming economic growth. Considering these differences, policy measures aiming at restricting energy consumption should be evaluated against the background of a region's stage of economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Unclean cooking fuel is widely used in the developing world, and it is the main indication of energy poverty in rural China. In this paper, we investigate the situation, transition, and determination of fuel choice in China's rural household cooking. Using the large scale micro-survey data of China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), we find that there is a big gap in using commercial cooking fuels between rural and urban households: 60% of the rural households adopt traditional biomass resource as their main fuel for cooking in 2011, while this figure is less than 5% in the urban. We also identify a significant spatial divide in fuel choice: in southeastern coastal areas, about 40% of the rural households prefer solid fuels, while this figure jumps to over 80% in northeastern areas. The longitudinal data also reveal a significant transition from traditional to modern fuels from 2008 to 2012. Moreover, the distance to the most commonly used farmer's market, education background, coal price and female labor participation are all influential in determining the households' choices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Clean cooking has emerged as a major concern for global health and development because of the enormous burden of disease caused by traditional cookstoves and fires. The World Health Organization has developed new indoor air quality guidelines that few homes will be able to achieve without replacing traditional methods with modern clean cooking technologies, including fuels and stoves. However, decades of experience with improved stove programs indicate that the challenge of modernizing cooking in impoverished communities includes a complex, multi-sectoral set of problems that require implementation research. The National Institutes of Health, in partnership with several government agencies and the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, has launched the Clean Cooking Implementation Science Network that aims to address this issue. In this article, our focus is on building a knowledge base to accelerate scale-up and sustained use of the cleanest technologies in low- and middle-income countries. Implementation science provides a variety of analytical and planning tools to enhance effectiveness of clinical and public health interventions. These tools are being integrated with a growing body of knowledge and new research projects to yield new methods, consensus tools, and an evidence base to accelerate improvements in health promised by the renewed agenda of clean cooking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reported herein is the sensitive and selective detection of benzene and alkylated benzene derivatives as well as the practical application of this system in the detection of fuel contaminated environments following a March 2015 tanker truck crash at the Bourne Rotary in Bourne, Massachusetts. This detection method relies on the ability of cyclodextrin to promote proximity-induced fluorescence modulation of a high quantum yield fluorophore, which led to unique modulation responses for each cyclodextrin-analyte-fluorophore combination investigated. The measured changes in fluorescence emission were used to generate arrays using linear discriminant analysis to generate unique pattern identifiers for each combination. The method was successful in detecting ppm levels of analytes with 100% success in differentiating analytes in purified buffer solution and 100% success in differentiating between analytes in water samples from three collection locations related to the crash site: downstream, upstream, and directly from the drainage pipe. Notably, this method was successful in generating well-separated signals for structural isomers of xylene ( ortho, meta, para) which is difficult without specialized mass spectrometry-based techniques. The high selectivity, sensitivity, and broad applicability of this method have significant potential in the detection of aromatic analytes in a wide range of complex environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this paper is to analysis how endogenous road capacity, in term of an increase in road accessibility and traffic demand (“induced effect”), exogenous efficiency policies and technological progress, in term of an increase in fuel efficiency (“rebound effect”), affect fuel consumption and thereby exhaust emission finally, the empirical estimate a simultaneous equations system of the road traffic demand, fuel consumption, exhaust emission, using the annual data of 1985–2013, we discuss the transmission mechanism of effects caused by road capacity and fuel efficiency policies, and we estimate the induced effect and rebound effect further than the previous studies, and found that the rebound effect and induced effect in China are larger than most studies of the U.S. We also prove the effectiveness of fuel efficiency policies to improve fuel efficiency, however, little help to reduce vehicle emission. In view of the pricing policy, we found that high price of new vehicle cannot inhibit Chinese demand for cars currently, what's more, rising fuel price did not encourage people to purchase energy-saving vehicles in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuel load is a primary determinant of fire spread in Australian forests. In east Australian forests, litter and canopy fuel loads and hence fire hazard are thought to be highest at and beyond steady-state fuel loads 15–20 years post-fire. Current methods used to predict fuel loads often rely on course-scale vegetation maps and simple time-since-fire relationships which mask fine-scale processes influencing fuel loads. Here we use Light Detecting and Remote Sensing technology (LiDAR) and field surveys to quantify post-fire mid-story and crown canopy fuel accumulation and fire hazard in Dry Sclerophyll Forests of the Sydney Basin (Australia) at fine spatial-scales (20 × 20 m cell resolution). Fuel cover was quantified in three strata important for crown fire propagation (0.5–4 m, 4–15 m, >15 m) over a 144 km 2 area subject to varying fire fuel ages. Our results show that 1) LiDAR provided a precise measurement of fuel cover in each strata and a less precise but still useful predictor of surface fuels, 2) cover varied greatly within a mapped vegetation class of the same fuel age, particularly for elevated fuel, 3) time-since-fire was a poor predictor of fuel cover and crown fire hazard because fuel loads important for crown fire propagation were variable over a range of fire fuel ages between 2 and 38 years post-fire, and 4) fuel loads and fire hazard can be high in the years immediately following fire. Our results show the benefits of spatially and temporally specific in situ fuel sampling methods such as LiDAR, and are widely applicable for fire management actions which aim to decrease human and environmental losses due to wildfire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]