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A negative carbon emission scenario via pyrolysis of three different food waste blends was investigated. A tube reactor was utilized for pyrolysis runs at temperatures of 650 °C, 725 °C, and 900 °C, while the carbon inventory was prepared. The blend of rice and french fries resulted in the highest char yield, being 212 g/kg at 650 °C pyrolysis temperature. In this case, each kg of food waste can correspond to 536 g of captured or removed CO2 from the air. The blend of roast pork and breaded chicken showed significantly less carbon removal potential of 348 gCO2/kgsample measured at 650 °C pyrolysis temperature, compared to rice and French fries. A higher pyrolysis temperature resulted in lower char yields, but, on the other side, it resulted in a higher carbon content of char. Additionally, higher pyrolysis temperature resulted in lower carbon capture potential within the temperature range utilized in this study. The heating value of dry pyrolysis gas was between 12.0–16.6 MJ/Nm3 and 10.3–12.3 MJ/Nm3 during the heat-up and constant temperature period, respectively. Based on the results, negative CO2 emission can be reached via pyrolysis of food waste with the benefit of capturing carbon in solid form, and therefore, this method can be considered a promising and alternative method to treat food waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Acrylamide (AA) and 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are the byproducts of the Maillard reaction that pose health risks due to their high exposure to the Western diet. Current study examines the impact of yeast fermentation on AA, HMF formation, and chemical composition of French fries. Fermentation, known for enriching food with beneficial probiotics, vitamins, and minerals, is coupled with blanching, a technique used to inactivate enzymes and reduce microbial load, thus preserving color and extending shelf life. Fermentation reduced HMF and AA levels in French fries by approximately 86.5% and 54.78%, respectively. Furthermore, combining fermentation with blanching treatment further decreased HMF and AA levels by 88.62% and 59.81%, respectively. This research suggests that yeast fermentation, particularly when combined with blanching treatment, can effectively mitigate the formation of AA and HMF in French fries, thereby potentially reducing their health risks. This pioneering research opens avenues for additional inquiries, laying the groundwork for future advancements in enhancing food safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High frying quality in terms of frying colour is an important trait for potatoes meant for French fry production. Determination of frying colour is often performed visually, which might be affected by biases and is therefore less suitable for research. Available laboratory methods also lack the capability to cover the whole sample and distinguish between tuber parts. Additionally, sample destruction is often required for colour analysis. Therefore, a new approach using RGB colour values and the subsequent R/G ratio of French fries to assess frying colour was tested in this research. Over the course of 3 years, 673 samples of the cultivar Innovator were assessed and compared to visual scoring, and some samples were also assessed for glucose content. A high correlation of R2 = 0.8346 between the visual scoring and the optoelectronic assessment was found for 633 samples. The validation data set of 40 samples reached a correlation of R2 = 0.7850 with the implemented model. These results show that French fry frying colour can be described using the R/G ratio. This promising approach is suitable for other researchers as well as industry professionals with further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potato is one of the main crops worldwide and generates income for small-scale farmers, and it is a primary component of the diet of rural inhabitants, especially in developing countries. In Peru, the demand for French fries in traditional restaurants, rotisserie chicken ("Pollerias"), and fast-food restaurants is increasing every day. However, supply is covered by imported pre-fried potatoes. During the 2019–2020 and 2020–2021 growing seasons, ten potato clones belong to the International Potato Center (CIP) breeding program, and two Peruvian varieties used for frying as controls UNICA (CIP392797.22) and INIA 303-CANCHAN (CIP380389.1) were tested in 13 trials in farmers' fields placed in the north, center, and south of Peru using a randomized complete block design with three replications of 150 plants. Late blight severity and yield were evaluated under field conditions, and the contents of dry matter and reducing sugars were determined with laboratory tests. Clones CIP395123.6, CIP396026.101, and CIP396034.103 were selected for their high level of resistance to late blight, yields over 30 t/ha, with more than 20% dry matter, less than 0.20% reducing sugars and excellent quality for French fries' sticks. Selected clones have been registered in the official register of cultivars of Peru, as new varieties. The standard of living of small and medium-scale potato farmers can be improved with the production of these new varieties, which support the health of producers and consumers and the environment. New potato varieties can be used as parents in breeding programs around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frozen food industry is gaining momentum in the developing world. Rapid urbanisation and the expansion of the fast food industry have greatly contributed to the significant expansion of India's potato processing sector, particularly in relation to the popular and fast-selling food item, French fries. Despite being the world's second-largest producer of potatoes, India processes only a small fraction, approximately 0.6%, of its total potato production into frozen French fries. In contrast, industrialised countries typically process over 80% of their potato harvest into frozen French fries. Current consumption patterns and preferences indicate that there is significant potential for further expansion in the Indian frozen French fry industry. According to an analysis of the Indian Agri-processing industry, the future demand for processing potatoes is projected to be highest for French fries, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.6% followed by dehydrated potato flakes (7.6% CAGR) and potato crisps (4.5% CAGR). Factors limiting industry expansion mainly include technical challenges (availability of poor quality seed; limited genetic base for the development of new varieties; prevalent diseases like late blight) and natural resource constraints (declining water tables associated with unpredictable and reduced rainfall). The primary issue facing the industry is consistent and assured supply of high-quality raw materials. This review describes the scenario of the Indian potato processing industry, developments in the frozen French fry industry in terms of market trends, new cultivars and technology. It also tackles concerns and highlights areas for enhancing and establishing a sustainable processing industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In marginal mountain areas, farm management presents challenges, particularly the sustainable improvement of yield and quality. To ensure this agronomic result, it is crucial to select appropriate varieties and apply sustainable agricultural practices, such as the use of plant biostimulants. To address these challenges a two-year field study was conducted using three potato varieties (Désirée, Kennebec and Spunta) in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. These varieties were treated with two plant biostimulants: one based on hydrolyzed proteins from animal epithelial tissue (Fitostim®) and another based on seaweed extracts (FitostimAlga®). Agronomic and biochemical traits were used to evaluate the development of plants, yield and tubers quality. Significant interactions among factors were found, resulting in higher or lower efficiency of the plant biostimulant treatment depending on weather conditions and potato genotype. Furthermore, results demonstrated that plant biostimulant treatments increased the leaf chlorophyll content (+ 11.5%), the number of leaves per plant (+ 13.3%) and the height of potato plants (+ 6.5%), while no effects were observed on yield. The Désirée variety achieved the highest yield (0.54 kg plant-1), whereas Kennebec was shown as the best variety to use for production of French fries due to a lower tuber quantity of reducing sugars, which were reduced also by plant biostimulants treatment (-18%). Moreover, Spunta tubers had the highest content of polyphenols, and the best value was achieved by Spunta variety treated with Fitostim® alga in the second year. Our finding have proven that plant biostimulant treatments can increase the quality of potato tuber without compromising yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processed plant-based foods, particularly high carbohydrate-containing foods, are among the greatest contributors to dietary acrylamide, a probable human carcinogen, uptake. Between 2009 and 2020, five surveys were conducted to determine acrylamide in high carbohydrate-containing foods in Canada. These surveys included sampling of potato and sweet potato chips, French fries, and frozen potato/sweet potato products, as a follow-up to our earlier surveys from 2002 - 2008. Samples were analyzed using isotope dilution (13C3-acrylamide) with LC-MS/MS. The highest mean acrylamide levels were found in sweet potato chips. Among potato chips (57 to 4660 ng g−1), one brand consistently showed the highest concentrations with wide variability. Acrylamide concentrations decreased over time in ready-to-eat French fries (from 480 to 358 ng g−1), and one brand showed a clear reduction temporally. Wide variations were observed among brands, among lots/outlets of same brands, and among different food chains. Acrylamide levels in potato chips decreased between 2009 and 2016 (504.3 ng g−1) relative to the period 2002 - 2008 (1096.9 ng g−1). The acrylamide trends observed in the products measured in the latest study indicate that food producers may have adopted mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potato is the third most important food crop in the world in terms of adaptability, yield potential, and nutritional advantages. This study aimed to conduct potato breeding work for cultivation in Kazakhstan; potato breeding for further processing into chips with cultivation in the northern regions; and the selection of potatoes for processing into frozen French fries with cultivation in the southern and south-eastern regions. Potato varieties (Fontane, Santana, and Punchy) were used as reference varieties to check molecular markers linked to maturity, tuber shape, and flesh color. A total of 42 potato breeding lines crossed from Yagodnyi 19 and CIP clone 397079-6 were used in this study to identify prospective breeding lines. The research was carried out between 2023 and 2024 and under greenhouse conditions. According to the results of molecular analysis and phenotypic data, 21 breeding lines were identified as prospective potato breeding lines. The majority of these potato breeding lines had a round tuber shape and were recommended for chip processing. Three breeding lines had a long oval tuber shape, making them suitable for French fries. Six breeding lines with short-oval and oval tuber shapes were found for consumer potato processing. It is recommended that the breeding process and studies of biochemical properties are continued in all of these identified potato breeding lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of deep‐frying brings about significant physicochemical changes in the color and moisture content of foods, influenced by heat and mass transfer phenomena. Achieving consistent quality in fried foods, such as nuggets, fries, and chicken pies, is challenging, highlighting the importance of predicting these changes. This study delves into the evolving dynamics of color and moisture content, specifically in French fries during deep frying. To model these changes, the study employs a first‐order kinetic equation for color and moisture content, utilizing numerical solutions like the Runge–Kutta fourth‐order method as well as the Nelder–Mead algorithm in MATLAB. The Arrhenius equation plays a key role in this model. The modified model is compared against an existing model using the root mean square error (RMSE) and Akaike information criterion (AIC). Note that the investigation evaluates how oil temperature (at 150, 170, and 190°C) as well as sample thickness (at 5, 10, and 15 mm) impact the French fries' moisture and color content during frying. Results indicate that the modified model, with its improved accuracy and lower RMSE and AIC values compared to the existing model, provides a more reliable tool for understanding the frying process. Consequently, the inclusion of a user‐friendly graphical interface (GUI) makes this modeling approach accessible even to those with limited mathematical or programming expertise, benefiting professionals seeking more profound insights into the frying process. Practical applications: The graphical user interface (GUI) for predicting deep‐fried food quality presented in this study holds broad industrial applications. It serves as a pivotal tool in the food industry for ensuring consistent quality across products like fries and nuggets, enabling manufacturers to optimize frying processes. Fast‐food chains can use the GUI to minimize costs and energy consumption while maintaining product quality. In addition, it aids in equipment calibration, becoming an invaluable asset for operators seeking optimal performance and longevity in deep‐frying equipment. Culinary schools benefit from this GUI as an educational tool, offering aspiring chefs a practical understanding of deep‐frying science. Researchers and food scientists can accelerate R&D cycles by efficiently assessing the impact of variables. SMEs, regulatory bodies, and food retailers find utility in the GUI for quality control, compliance, and consumer education, collectively contributing to industry transparency, sustainability, and improved global health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fried potato products are the largest dietary source of acrylamide, a potential carcinogen formed at high temperatures. Previous studies suggested that garlic powder could decrease the development of acrylamide; however, there has not been much focus on the effect of garlic extract. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of garlic extract exposure on the development of acrylamide in French fries in popular home cooking techniques such as pan-frying, air-frying, and oven-frying. Initially, the antioxidative profile, total phenolic content, and chlorogenic acid content of garlic were analyzed. Subsequently, potatoes were treated with garlic extract and fried using pan-frying, air-frying, and oven-frying techniques. Acrylamide levels were then quantified through HPLC and compared to control groups. The findings showed that garlic exposure increased the acrylamide formation in French fries obtained with air-frying (311.95 ± 0.5 μg/kg) and with oven-frying (270.32 ± 23.4 μg/kg) (p < 0.005 *). This study offers new insights into varying acrylamide formation levels in domestic practices. Unlike previous studies, this study is the first to question the effect of aqueous garlic extract exposure. Further research is required to comprehend the interaction between garlic exposure and acrylamide formation in household settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

French fries are processed products made of partially cooked frozen potatoes. The most essential step in making french fries is frying, aiming to produce soft and crunchy product. Using air fryers in the frying process offers the benefit of significantly reducing oil consumption, thereby making it a favorable option for producing lower-fat fried foods. The objectives of the present study were to analyze the physical and chemical characteristics of french fries on the use of oil and time variation in the air frying method and to determine the frying kinetics under the air fryer. Finding the best frying method was carried out using some attributes of Zeleny, such as the frying rate. Frying was controlled at a constant temperature of 180 °C with time variations of 10, 13, and 16 minutes, and variation in the amount of oil, i.e., 2 mL, 4 mL, and without oil. The results showed the physical characteristics of french fries that include moisture content (26.85 – 45.56%), color with indicators L* (64.44 – 68.66), a* (0.01 – 4.80), b* (21.32 – 35.54), color differences (4.57 – 10.60), hardness (120.83 – 559.8 g), springiness (1.15 – 2.82 mJ), chewiness (0.33 – 3.98 mm), gumminess (28.6 – 213.43 g), and cohesiveness (0.2 – 0.41). The variations in the amount of cooking oil in the air frying method significantly affect the redness parameters. The time variation in the air frying method significantly affects moisture content, hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and cohesiveness parameters. Lightness, yellowness, colour differences, and springiness parameters have no significant effect on the variation of oil and time. The chemical characteristic of french fries includes fat content (5.78 – 22.42 %). The air frying method without oil used for 13 minutes was considered as the best treatment for frying french fries.

Food pairing was the process of combining food or food and beverages to produce sensory characteristics. The consumption of snacks with commercial chili sauce as a supplement was widespread among consumers. Research on food pairing of commercial chili sauce with French fries was limited. The research aimed to describe and understand the sensory profile of chili sauce with its accompanying foods and identify changes in sensory attribute intensity when chili sauce was paired based on consumer perception. The methods used were Quantitative Descriptive Analysis and Rate All That Apply. The main ingredients were four commercial chili sauces and three commercial French fries. The sensory characteristics of chili sauce and French fries pairs were evaluated using QDA with trained panelists and RATA with consumer panelists. The results from the QDA method showed dominant characteristics such as potato flavor, crunchy texture, oily mouthfeel, sweet taste, and sour taste. According to PCA and spider web in QDA, it can be observed that the sample pairs with the highest intensity were sample pairs 47 and 87. Based on the RATA test results, According to PCA and spider web in RATA, it can be observed that the sample pair with the highest intensity was sample pair 65. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review concentrates on cutting‐edge pretreatments for deep‐fat frying that are meant to lower energy costs and enhance product quality. Methods such as freezing, blanching, pulsed electric fields, superheated steam, and ultrasonication are investigated to improve flavor without increasing cooking time. The study focuses on techniques to reduce oil absorption, specifically using physicochemical changes and hydrocolloid coatings. When added before or after frying, functional ingredients such as proteins and non‐protein hydrocolloids take advantage of cooling‐phase effects and water replacement mechanisms to minimize oil absorption. Effective barrier agents that preserve the texture and moisture of fried foods like French fries include pectin, CMC, and xanthan gum. While the effectiveness of various hydrocolloids varies, carrageenan and gum Arabic are particularly effective. French fries treated with guar gum and sorbitol showed reductions in total oil between 30.6% and 50.8%, respectively. Furthermore, the initial moisture content affects physical changes that occur during frying, such as the development of porosity, which affects the absorption of oil. This thorough analysis provides insights into cutting‐edge methods for making fried foods with less oil while preserving sensory qualities. Future studies will be focused on developing novel physicochemical changes and hydrocolloid coatings that use functional ingredients such as proteins and non‐protein hydrocolloids to efficiently lower excessive oil absorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increases in consumer demand for fried foods in Japan over the last several decades, the consumption of frying oil has also steadily increased. Fryers used in restaurants to cook large quantities of food are typically cleaned using neutral kitchen detergents at the end of the day after removing the oil from the tank. However, significant amounts of debris can remain in the fryer after cleaning, possibly accelerating oil deterioration and thus reducing the quality of the fried foods. In this study, debris obtained from fryer tanks used in actual restaurants was assessed using scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy together with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and were determined to comprise polymerized oil and carbonized organic matter. Experiments using artificially prepared debris confirmed that these materials increased the acid value (AV) of frying oil. Trials in two restaurants serving similar amounts of fried chicken, French fries and doughnuts examined the effects of cleaning the fryer with either an alkaline detergent or a neutral kitchen detergent on debris removal and oil life. The alkaline detergent was found to completely remove debris while the neutral detergent left significant amounts of debris. After cleaning, the fryers were operated with new oil as usual and the deterioration of this oil was monitored by assessing the color difference, AV, carbonyl value and peroxide value. These indices increased 1.3 to 2.0 times faster in the case that the neutral kitchen detergent was used, suggesting that cleaning fryer tanks with an alkaline detergent could contribute to extending the lifetime of frying oil, reducing food losses and thus achieving sustainable development goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of fried products greatly depends on the changes occurring during frying. The purpose of this work was to study the lipid quality changes taking place in selected frozen foods after domestic deep-frying. Conventional, high-linoleic sunflower oil (HLSO) and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) were used, and the frozen foods selected were French fries, croquettes, and nuggets. The foods were fried in domestic fryers under discontinuous conditions. Analyses included fatty acid composition, sterols, tocopherols, squalene, and lipid alteration levels. In all fried foods, the content of lipids increased after frying, which is consistent with previous findings. However, the lipid exchange between the food and the oil greatly depended on the food characteristics. Specifically, the levels of frying oil in the food lipids were about 90, 40, and 58% for French fries, croquettes, and nuggets, respectively. The main results obtained showed that lipid alteration levels considerably decreased and amounts of sterols and tocopherols significantly increased in French fries' lipids after frying. In both chicken products, croquettes and nuggets, the best quality improvement observed was a significant decrease in cholesterol in food lipids due to the lipid exchange. Overall, frying with HLSO and HOSO improved the quality and nutritional properties of all products tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study sought to analyze the oxidative products [acid value (AV), free fatty acids (FFA), conjugated dienoic acid (CDA), p-anisidine value (p-AV), antioxidant-prooxidant balance (APB) value] and toxic compounds [3-monochloropropane diol (3-MCPD), glycidyl ester (GE)] in edible oils after deep-frying. The deep-frying edible oils evaluated herein included soybean oil (S), palm oil (P), canola oil (C), grape seed oil (G), and a 1:1 blend (SC, SG, PC, PG, and CG). As frying time increased, the level of AV in PC, total FFA contents in CG, and p-AV in CG significantly increased up to 200%, 45.5%, and 410.5%, respectively (p < 0.05). The levels of 3-MCPD, and GE were 0.81–6.28 µg/mL and 0.14–2.84 µg/mL, respectively. The levels of 3-MCPD, GE, CDA, and APB changed significantly as frying time increased. Analysis of the correlation between oxidation products and toxic compounds indicated that the contents of 3-MCPD and palmitic acid were positively correlated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is measuring the differences in color properties of potato sticks and oil by frying using Wock Skillet during three separate frying sessions. The measurements indicators were optical properties, RGB Bands: (Red, Green, Blue Bands), Intensity, and browning index of potato sticks and oil. The research was conducted in the laboratory of the Agricultural Engineering Department. The results showed a clear color change in the potato slices with the time of frying, and they also showed a clear color change in the number of times the oil was fried. The relationship between the oil browning index and the frying duration were happened. the oil browning index increased from 67.81 at the beginning of frying to 72.24 at the second minute, then to 75.18 in the fourth minute, then to 82.35 in the sixth minute, then to 84.49 in the eighth minute until it reached 87.75 at the tenth minute it end of the first frying process. The second frying time increased from 75.97 at the beginning of frying to 77.15 in the second minute, then to 78.92 in the fourth minute, then to 83.52 in the sixth minute, then to 86.93 in the eighth minute until it reached 88.18 in the tenth minute. In the third time also, the values increased from 76.44, 78.72, 82.54, 84.91, 88.53 and 90.15 in minutes 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10, respectively. While it was predicted that there would be a direct relationship between the potato browning index and the period of frying. And also, a direct relationship between the potato browning index and the number of frying times. as it increased from 48.11 in the fourth minute, then to 54.24 in the sixth minute, then to 61.83 in the eighth minute until it reached 69.50 in the tenth minute at the end of the first frying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a possibilities of infrared thermography especially focused on temperature measurement as a non-destructive to monitor temperature profile during potato frying With using three different, easily accessible skillet materials stainless steel Wock Skillet, Stainless steel with PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene material and Tefal Skillet. The thermal imaging cameras and software to read skin surface temperature and calculate an estimated core body temperature. The results recorded the internal and external temperatures at the three Skillet materials, the temperature of air, oil, fire, and potatoes, for the Wock Skillet before frying 29.8, 36.9, 21.7, 45.9, 216.7 and 17.2Co while after frying 50.9, 61.9, 23.1, 111.9, 204 and 31.8 Corespectively. as they were for the Teffal Skillet before frying 131, 154.9, 25, 94.2, 206.1 and 17.2 Cowhile after frying 200.7, 201.3, 27.8, 161.1, 260.7 and 40.1Co respectively. as they were for the Wock Skillet before frying 59.7, 51.6, 26.7, 65.6, 129.8 and 17.2Co while after frying 99.4, 126, 28.8, 120.1, 197.4 and 35.1Co respectively. Therefore, the best temperature profile of frying with typesSkillet for the least heat emission, and the lowest temperature recorded for oil and potatoes, were in the Wock Skillet, followed by the Teffal Skillet, and finally the EL RAMLAY Skillet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insect meal has been identified as one of the cutting-edge alternatives to substitute fishmeal (FM) in aquafeeds. However, the potential of FM replacing with field cricket meal (FCM) related to Calta catla fry stage has yet to be researched. Therefore, an eight-week experiment was designed to evaluate the performance of C. catla fry (0.22 ± 0.04 g/fish). The protein content of the FM of the control feed (0FCM) was replaced with 35% (35FCM), 70% (70FCM), and 100% (100FCM) of FCM. All the fish were hand-fed by respective research diets 5% of the body weight twice daily. Results showed that FCM could replace wild-caught fishmeal (67.1% crude protein) without adversely affecting growth performance, carcass composition, liver functions, and disease tolerance. Though in vivo protein digestibility significantly decreased (P<0.05) when the FCM percentage increased in the feed, it did not affect the performance of the fish. Therefore, FCM could be used to prepare fish-free feed in the C. catla fry stage. However, optimum technical know-how should be identified to certify the accessible and economically viable mass-scale production of FCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gujarat is known for its French fries potatoes in India. This state is number one in potato productivity. It provides an amicable business environment for producers and processors for contract farming. To understand potato production practices, 180 contract farmers were studied in different villages of northern Gujarat after doing multistage sampling from districts to Talukas and then villages. Data were analysed through frequencies, percentages, and Garrett ranking techniques. It was found that potato contract farming was more centric towards larger producers although processors screened out their preferred producers on the basis of a number of parameters, like land holding capacity, business sense, youthfulness, and positive attitude. Potato contract farming in the state was more informal than formal. The processors provided seed and in time consultancy support to the producers. Higher input cost was the major reason for breaching the contract. Any conflict in this direction was solved through a participatory approach. Ultimately, lack of labour and credit issues made contract farming challenging for the producers that need to be nullified by the processors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the increasing challenges of water scarcity and the stringent quality requirements of the frozen potato-processing industry, this multi-year research trial aimed to determine whether reduced late-season irrigation on potatoes could improve French fry color. The study was conducted near Othello, WA, and was comprised of five irrigation levels: 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%, and 120% of modeled evapotranspiration (ET), and five potato cultivars: Alturas, Clearwater Russet, Ranger Russet, Russet Burbank, and Umatilla Russet. Irrigation treatments started 100 to 105 days after planting (DAP), approximately 1500 day degrees (at or near peak canopy growth), and ended at vine kill, 150 to 155 DAP. Fry color was assessed following storage durations of 45 and 90 days after harvest from three storage temperatures of 4.4 °C, 6.7 °C, and 8.9 °C, using a photovolt reflectometer, measuring percent light reflectance, in which higher values represented lighter fries. The study found that reducing late-season irrigation generally improved overall fry color. Fry color improvements were observed in four potato cultivars grown with 20% to 40% less irrigation than the control (100% ET); Ranger Russet exhibited no improvement. Reducing late-season irrigation by more than 40% resulted in darker fries for Clearwater Russet, Russet Burbank, and Umatilla Russet when tubers were stored at 4.4 °C and 6.7 °C. Excess irrigation, greater than 100% ET, generally darkened fries in Alturas, Clearwater Russet, Russet Burbank, and Umatilla Russet. These findings provide valuable guidelines for potato growers, indicating that while reducing late-season irrigation can enhance fry color, the effects may depend on a combination of cultivar, irrigation level, and storage temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the potato processing industry, the length-to-width (L/W) ratio of potato tubers is a critical quality indicator, especially for products like French fries and chips. Traditional measurement methods such as manual scales or calipers are labor-intensive and subject to variability. Addressing this challenge, we introduce a mobile application (Tuber Ruler) developed for Android smartphones, which employs image analysis to accurately measure the L/W ratio of potato tubers. By integrating standard image-processing and machine learning (ML) techniques, Tuber Ruler offers a dual-approach analysis, allowing for rapid and precise tuber sizing against both standard black and diverse natural backgrounds. The application exhibits acceptable performance metrics when compared to ground truth measurements obtained via digital calipers. Specifically, Tuber Ruler achieved a Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) of 0.98 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.03 for russet potatoes, demonstrating consistent accuracy across diverse potato varieties (yellow tubers: r = 0.98, MAE = 0.02; red tubers: r = 0.91, MAE = 0.04). The app can be used in challenging natural environments such as soil and grass backgrounds. Moreover, Tuber Ruler maintains high accuracy (r ≥ 0.99, MAE = 0.01–0.04) even when image resolution is reduced to 25% of the original size, showcasing its resilience to resolution degradation. A significant aspect of Tuber Ruler is the effective use of ML to complement standard image-processing approach, enhancing the application's adaptability to varied backgrounds and tuber types. This dual-approach analysis, coupled with swift processing times (standard image-processing: 2.0 s; ML: 4.0 s), positions Tuber Ruler as an alternative to traditional sizing methods. By offering a scalable, precise, and user-friendly tool for tuber sizing, Tuber Ruler has the potential to significantly enhance productivity and operational efficiency in the potato industry, becoming a valuable tool to growers, processors and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study investigated the effect of cooking on the levels of 3-chloro-1, 2-propanediol esters (3-MCPDEs), 2-chloro-1, 3-propanediol esters (2-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in deep-fried rice cracker, fried potato, croquette, fish fillet, chicken fillet and cooking oils (rice bran oil and palm oil). The levels of 2-/3-MCPDE in rice cracker fried with rice bran oil and the used oil remained about the same, while the levels of GEs in them fell with frying time. The levels of 2-/3-MCPDEs in fried potato, croquette, fried fish and chicken cutlet fried with rice bran oil and palm oil respectively fell with frying time, while the level of GEs in them remained about the same. The levels of 2-/3-MCPDEs and GEs in fried rice cooked with rice bran oil were under the method limit of quantification. These results provide insights the cooking has no influence with the levels of 2-/3-MCPDEs and GEs in cooked foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glycoalkaloids (TGAs, total glycoalkaloids), toxic secondary metabolites, are found in potatoes (110–335 mg·kg−1 DW), mainly in the peel. Colorful, unpeeled potatoes are an innovative raw material for the production of snacks which are poorly tested in terms of their glycoalkaloid content. Third-generation snacks and French fries made from red-fleshed Mulberry Beauty (MB) and purple-fleshed Double Fun (DF) potatoes were produced with the use of 1% solutions of ascorbic, citric, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids to stabilize the structure of anthocyanins in the raw material and maintain their color in obtained products. The influence of the type of acid and thermal processes, like frying, microwaving, and baking, on the content of glycoalkaloids in ready-made products was examined. Only 0.45–1.26 mg·100 g−1 of TGA was found in pellet snacks and 1.32–1.71 mg·100 g−1 in French fries. Soaking blanched potatoes in organic acid solution reduced the α-chaconine content by 91–97% in snacks and by 57–93% in French fries in relation to the raw material to the greatest extent after the use of malic acid and the DF variety. The effect of lactic and citric acid was also beneficial, especially in the production of baked French fries from MB potatoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

为调控煎炸过程中非挥发性甘油酯核心醛（GCAs）的生成,更合理地进行煎炸，通过高油酸葵花籽油煎炸薯条实验，探究煎炸方式、煎炸批次、煎炸温度以及油料比对10-氧代-8-癸烯醛酸酰基甘油三酯（10-oxo-8）和11-氧代-9-十一碳烯醛酸酰基甘油三酯（11-oxo-9）两种不饱和型GCAs生成的影响。结果表明：与间歇煎炸相比，连续煎炸产生更少的11-oxo-9，两种煎炸方式下10-oxo-8的含量总体上差异不大；每小时煎炸1批次薯条较煎炸多批次薯条生成的不饱和型GCAs更少，且煎炸油中的10-oxo-8和11-oxo-9含量与煎炸批次整体呈正相关；煎炸温度为160 ℃时较140 ℃和180 ℃生成的不饱和型GCAs更少；油料比为30∶ 1时，不饱和型GCAs总体含量较低。综上，为降低高油酸煎炸油中GCAs的含量，可采用连续煎炸方式并尽量控制煎炸批次，保持煎炸温度在160 ℃，控制油料比为30∶ 1。In order to regulate the generation of non-volatile glyceryl ester core aldehydes(GCAs) and make the frying process more reasonable, the effects of frying method, frying batch, frying temperature and ratio of oil to material on the production of two unsaturated GCAs, 10-oxo-8-decenoic aldehyde acyl triglyceride (10-oxo-8) and 11-oxo-9-undecenoic aldehyde acyl triglyceride (11-oxo-9), were investigated by frying French fries with high-oleic sunflower seed oil. The results showed that continuous frying produced less 11-oxo-9 than intermittent frying, and there was no significant difference in the content of 10-oxo-8 produced between the two frying methods; one batch of French fries fried per hour produced fewer unsaturated GCAs than multiple batches of French fries fried per hour, and there was a positive correlation between the content of 10-oxo-8 and 11-oxo-9 in the oil and the number of batches of French fries fried; the amount of unsaturated GCAs produced was lower when the frying temperature was 160 ℃ compared with that at 140 ℃ and 180 ℃; the amount of unsaturated GCAs produced was overall low when the ratio of oil to material was 30∶ 1. In conclusion, in order to reduce the content of GCAs in high-oleic frying oils, continuous frying can be used, the number of frying batches can be controlled as much as possible, the frying temperature can be maintained at 160 ℃ and the ratio of oil to material can be controlled at 30∶ 1.

The object of this study is the implementation of low-temperature processes for the production of meat and vegetable products under the conditions of adding a dried semi-finished product of a high degree of readiness to the recipe when using the designed universal rotary device of continuous action. The rotary device of continuous action for low-temperature processing of meat and vegetable products with a cylindrical working chamber is heated by a film-like resistive electronic heater of the radiating type. It has a stationary wall (with a technical door for unloading and loading the device) and a technical wall (with an opening angle of 90°). On the inner surfaces of the walls, inclined converging ribs with an angle of 25° are installed, which are covered with an electric heater. Semi-finished meat and vegetable products are loaded onto carts with technological containers and mounted on a frameless drum (rotation frequency 0.03...0.06 s–1). The device converts secondary thermal energy into low-voltage power supply voltage (~3...8 W) for autonomous operation of fans. The proposed integrated adaptive mechanism for the system of complex interaction of the agricultural, processing, and production sectors implies the formation of resource efficiency of production processes from "farm to table". The designed device implements the process of frying meat-vegetable bread under conditions of reaching 80 °C in the center of the product. The obtained temperature field data confirm the uniformity of the temperature field during frying of the product (cooking readiness of the product at the initial weight of 650±20 g – 4.0 hours). The introduction of a multicomponent dried fraction based on potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, zucchini, and carrots into the recipe of meat-vegetable bread reduces the weight loss of the semi-finished product during frying by 12.3 %. It increases the content of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin C accompanied with a decrease in energy value by 28.1 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Acrylamide (AA) is a process contaminant naturally formed during the cooking of starchy food at high temperatures. Considering existing risks of misquantification inherent to the analysis of AA, an AOAC initiative raised the need for a consensus standard to determine AA in a broad variety of food. Objective A quantitative LC-MS/MS method for AA determination in food was validated in a single-laboratory study. Targeted performance requirements in terms of target matrixes, limit of quantification, recovery, and precision were as defined per Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR®) 2022.006. Method The proposed method derives from EN 16618:2015 standard pending modifications brought to the (1) sample preparation (simplified, potentially automated); (2) scope of application (significantly extended); and (3) LC conditions (improved selectivity). Confirmatory detection of AA is conducted by LC-MS/MS in the Selected Reaction Monitoring mode (SRM), and isotopic dilution was applied for quantification approach using either 2,3,3- d3 -acrylamide (d 3-AA), or 13C3 -2,3,3- d3 -acrylamide (13C3-d3 -AA) as labeled internal standard. Results A total of 16 laboratory samples from nine matrix categories were included in the validation process. A full validation was conducted on coffee (instant, roast), infant cereal, cocoa powder, pet food (croquettes), tea (green tea), spices (black pepper), and nuts (roasted almonds) with satisfactory performances both in terms of recovery (97–108%) and precision (RSDr and RSDiR <12%). The method applicability was further demonstrated through the analysis of quality control materials and reference materials including French fries, potato crisps, vegetable crisps, instant coffee, infant food, and biscuits (cookies), with accuracy values determined within a 94–107% range. Conclusions The performances of the presented method are in agreement with the acceptance criteria stipulated in SMPR 2022.006. Highlights The Expert Review Panel for acrylamide approved the present method as AOAC Official First Action 2023.01. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fast food is a food that is timely and easily prepared and consumed. Generally, it is made of cheap and low nutritional value ingredients. The aim of this study is to determine the fat and the fatty acid composition of regular and healthy fast foods in Amman, Jordan. Thirty-six samples of different fast-food items were collected from three regular fast-food restaurants. Twelve samples were bought from a healthy fast-food restaurant. The results showed that the highest fat content among regular samples was in chicken burger (CB) 12.022% but it was the lowest in turkey sandwich (T) 5.13%. Total fat was lower in healthy items. The highest amount of fat was in healthy chicken pizza (IPH) 6.62%, while baked potato (BP) showed the lowest fat content (0.27%). Halloumi sandwich (H) recorded the greatest level of saturated fatty acids (SFA) 67.01%, yet the lowest was in beef shawarma (BS) 28.30%. Healthy halloumi (HH) recorded the greatest level of SFA (69.45%) where it was the lowest in BP (20.60%). The greatest monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) content was in BS (42.88%), however its lowest content was in cheese pizza (EP) 26.31%. The highest content of MUFA was in healthy chicken fajita (HCF) 55.33% while its lowest was in HH (27.24%). The highest polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content was recorded by chicken shawarma (CS) 34.45% where it was the lowest in H (5.29%). The highest PUFA content was in samples containing meat. The greatest PUFA content was recorded in healthy turkey (HT) 38.01%, whereas it was the lowest in HH (5.20%). The highest level of trans fatty acids (TFA) was observed in French fries (FF) (0.72%), while its lowest amount was in chicken burger (CB) (0.12%). The highest TFA level was in HT (0.86%) while its lowest amount was in BP (0.11%). The ω-6/ω-3 in regular samples was from 5:1 for (CS) to 36:1 for (FF). Nevertheless, ω-6/ω-3 ranged from 1:1 to 22:1 for healthy beef quesadilla (HBQ) and HH in healthy samples. It was found that ω6/ω-3 in healthy samples was lower than regular ones. The PUFA/SFA ranged 0.08 - 1.25 for H and BS. Whereas, the PUFA/SFA ranged 0.07 - 1.59 for HH and BP in healthy samples. Among the regular samples, the highest atherogenic index (AI) and thrombogenic index (TI) were in H (2.54 and 3.06). The lowest AI and TI were in BS (0.47) and CS (0.54). The highest AI and TI were in HH (2.91 and 3.46) in healthy samples, whereas the lowest AI and TI were in BP 0.26 and 0.49. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: For years, heat treatment has been an essential method for ensuring mature food that meet the desired quality and safety characteristics. However, this process could lead to the formation of harmful compounds such as acrylamide. In this study we aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) of the Lebanese population toward the potential risk associated with acrylamide. Materials & methods: An online survey (n = 598) was conducted among residents in Lebanon aged 18 years and above. The survey was divided into five sections including participants' sociodemographic characteristics, knowledge, attitude and practice sections, and some questions related to consumer's preferences. Results & discussion: The results showed that the majority of the participants had low food safety knowledge regarding acrylamide. Specifically, 82.9% of the consumers had no idea about the chemical, its formation, the foods with a high risk of acrylamide formation and the health risks associated with its exposure. Despite lack of knowledge, good domestic food practices (storage, pre-treatment) were noticed among participants. Moreover, the majority of consumers (> 80%) showed positive attitude towards proper acrylamide labeling. Participants with a bachelor's degree appeared to have a more positive attitude toward food safety compared to those with no qualifications (p<0.001). Conclusion: Despite the high consumption of acrylamide by the consumers in Lebanon through fried potatoes, bread, and coffee, the majority have no idea about acrylamide's presence in food, its sources and its adverse health effects. Raising awareness among the public, involving policy makers in addressing the issue of clear labeling and encouraging the adoption of alternative practices to reduce acrylamide are all crucial to protect consumers' health in Lebanon and promote healthier food consumption habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite of containing a high amount of fat, which promotes obesity, coronary heart disease, and many more health issues, the worldwide popularity of fried food products is beyond controversy. Frying is further associated with the formation of acrylamide, which has been classified as carcinogenic in the 2A group. On the other hand, classic extraction methods for bioactive compounds exploitation have considerable bottlenecks to overcome such as they are time-consuming, require high energy, cost, and solvent, while offering comparatively low yield of extract with poor quality due to thermal degradation. Ultrasound can overcome these shortcomings and has gained considerable attention, whereas a comprehensive evaluation on ultrasound application in food frying to improve the quality of fried products and frying oil, together with the application of ultrasound in extraction and modification of bioactive compounds is not yet available. To this end, this review focuses on the in-depth understanding of ultrasound applications as a techno-functional modifier in food frying, extraction, and modification of bioactive compounds. Limitations of ultrasound application are explained. Research directions in alternatives assessment framework to evaluate the efficacy of ultrasound and fortification of fried products with bioactive compounds are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the frying of foods, undesirable reactions such as protein denaturation, acrylamide formation, and so on occur in the product, which has confirmed carcinogenic effects. The use of antioxidants has been proposed as an effective solution to reduce the formation of these compounds during the process. The current study aimed to assess the impact of an edible coating holding within chia seed gum (CSG) and Rosa canina L. extract (RCE) nanoemulsions on the physicochemical properties, oil uptake, acrylamide formation, 5‐hydroxymethyl‐2‐furfural (HMF) content, and sensory characteristics of beef–turkey burgers. The RCE‐loaded nanoemulsions were prepared using the ultrasonic homogenization method, and different concentrations (i.e., 10%, 20%, and 40% w/w) were added to the CSG solutions; these active coatings were used to cover the burgers. CSG‐based coatings, especially coatings containing the highest concentration of nanoemulsions (40%), caused a significant decrease in the oil uptake and moisture retention, acrylamide content, and HMF content of fried burgers. The texture of coated burgers was softer than that of uncoated samples; they also had a higher color brightness and a lower browning index. Field emission scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that RCE concentration less than 40% should be used in CSG coatings because it will cause minor cracks, which is an obvious possibility of failure of coating performance. Coating significantly (4–10 times) increased the antioxidant activity of burgers compared to the control. In conclusion, it is suggested to use the active coating produced in this study to improve fried burger quality and modulate acrylamide formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The aim of this research was to evaluate the possibility of lipid concomitant γ‐oryzanol reducing oil absorbency of fried foods and the underlying mechanism. Therefore, the influence of γ‐oryzanol on moisture and oil content, and distribution and micromorphology of French fries and the viscosity, fatty acid composition and total polar compounds content of rice bran oil (RBO) after frying were studied. RESULTS: Our results showed that the incorporation of low concentration of γ‐oryzanol [low addition group (LAG)] (5.754 g/kg) decreased the oil absorbency and porous structure of French fries during frying. Additionally, LAG incorporation inhibited the degradation of linoleic acid, decreased the growth rate of saturated fatty acids, total polar compounds and viscosity of frying oil. CONCLUSIONS: Consequently, it was recommended to incorporate a small amount of γ‐oryzanol in frying oil because it could inhibit oil absorption behavior of French fries. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Potato is an important non-cereal crop. It provides carbohydrates, a major source of energy in the human diet. Blanching during the processing of fresh fruits and vegetables is essential for their preservation. High-humidity hot-air impingement blanching (HHAIB) is a promising emerging technology for pretreating different food materials. This research aimed to identify the optimum HHAIB conditions for the inhibition of potato-browning enzymes, maintaining their nutritional and physical quality, and to compare this with conventional hot-water blanching (HWB). RESULTS: Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) inactivation, total phenol content (TPC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, color, textural attributes, thermal properties, microstructure, and particles crystallinity were evaluated. The relative humidity (RH), temperature, and duration of HHAIB required for PPO inactivation (2.59%)were 50%, 105 °C, and 4 min, respectively, which resulted in a complete gelatigination of potato starches, based on the thermal properties and the microstrcture of the blanched potatoes. These conditions led to improvements in TPC to 312.54 ~g GAE.g-1 FP, DPPH scavenging to 1.99 ~mol TE.g-1 FP, as well as enhancements in color and crystallinity.When HHAIB was conducted at lower temperatures (85 and 95 °C) there were negative effects on the blanched potatoes' color and crystallinity, along with a non-safe level of PPO activity. CONCLUSION: High-humidity hot-air impingement blanching was superior to HWB, inhibiting PPO, maintaining nutrients, and preserving physical properties, especially under the optimum conditions revealed by the principal component analysis. It provides an excellent technique for blanching and pretreating potatoes, preserving them, and maintaining their quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out in Bolu conditions in 2021 to see the effect of poultry ash, which has the potential to be a nutrient in terms of being rich in minerals and is also a soil conditioner, on the yield and quality characteristics of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). In the study, the conventional production method of 8 kg/da P + 20 kg/da N application was tried with six different ash amounts (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 kg/da poultry ash + 20 kg/da N). According to the values obtained from the study, the highest plant height (cm), the number of main stems (pieces), the specific gravity (g) 1500 kg/da ash application, the number of tubers per plant (pieces) from farmer conditions; average tuber weight (g), french fries oil rate (%), protein rate (%), big tuber rate (%) 2000 kg/da; chips oil rate (%), small tuber rate (%), dry matter rate (%) in the control plot where there was no application; Tuber yield per decare (kg/da), medium tuber ratio (%), marketable tuber ratio (%), were obtained from 1000 kg/da poultry ash application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A thermostable l-asparaginase was produced from Bacillus licheniformis UDS-5 (GenBank accession number, OP117154). The production conditions were optimized by the Plackett Burman method, followed by the Box Behnken method, where the enzyme production was enhanced up to fourfold. It secreted l-asparaginase optimally in the medium, pH 7, containing 0.5% (w/v) peptone, 1% (w/v) sodium chloride, 0.15% (w/v) beef extract, 0.15% (w/v) yeast extract, 3% (w/v) l-asparagine at 50 °C for 96 h. The enzyme, with a molecular weight of 85 kDa, was purified by ion exchange chromatography and size exclusion chromatography with better purification fold and percent yield. It displayed optimal catalysis at 70 °C in 20 mM Tris–Cl buffer, pH 8. The purified enzyme also exhibited significant salt tolerance too, making it a suitable candidate for the food application. The l-asparaginase was employed at different doses to evaluate its ability to mitigate acrylamide, while preparing French fries without any prior treatment. The salient attributes of B. licheniformis UDS-5 l-asparaginase, such as greater thermal stability, salt stability and acrylamide reduction in starchy foods, highlights its possible application in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat stress during the potato growing season reduces tuber marketable yield and quality. Tuber quality deterioration includes external (heat sprouts, chained tubers, knobs) and internal (vascular discoloration, hollow heart, internal heat necrosis) tuber defects, as well as a reduction in their specific gravity and increases in reducing sugars that result in suboptimal (darker) processed products (french fries and chips). Successfully cultivating potatoes under heat-stress conditions requires planting heat-tolerant varieties that can produce high yields of marketable tubers, few external and internal tuber defects, high specific gravity, and low reducing sugars (in the case of processing potatoes). Heat tolerance is a complex trait, and understanding its genetic basis will aid in developing heat-tolerant potato varieties. A panel of 217 diverse potato clones was evaluated for yield and quality attributes in Dalhart (2019 and 2020) and Springlake (2020 and 2021), Texas, and genotyped with the Infinium 22 K V3 Potato Array. A genome-wide association study was performed to identify genomic regions associated with heat-tolerance traits using the GWASpoly package. Quantitative trait loci were identified on chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11 for external defects and on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 10, and 11 for internal defects. Yield-related quantitative trait loci were detected on chromosomes 1, 6, and 10 pertaining to the average tuber weight and tuber number per plant. Genomic-estimated breeding values were calculated using the StageWise package. Clones with low genomic-estimated breeding values for tuber defects were identified as donors of good traits to improve heat tolerance. The identified genomic regions associated with heat-tolerance attributes and the genomic-estimated breeding values will be helpful to develop new potato cultivars with enhanced heat tolerance in potatoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of temperature reconditioning on cold-stored potato tubers was investigated for three popularly consumed potato varieties (Shangi, Unica, and Dutch robjin) grown in Kenya. The potatoes were stored at 4 °C for 30 days, followed by removal and storage at 22 ± 3 °C for 9 days during which changes in sugar concentration were evaluated every two days. In parallel, potato chips and French fries were processed, and their colors were determined. The results showed that sugar content decreased significantly with increasing reconditioning time. The relative decrease in fructose content was the highest (p < 0.05) in Dutch robjin (57.49%), followed by Shangi (49.22%) and Unica (38.18%). Glucose content decreased by 54.1% in Dutch robjin, 49.5% in Shangi, and 50.8% in Unica. The lightness (L*) of French fries and chips increased significantly (p < 0.05) with reconditioning time while the redness (a*) values decreased significantly (p < 0.05) across all varieties. The correlation between lightness and the total reducing sugar content of the potatoes was r < −0.93, indicating a strong negative correlation for both products. The coefficient of determination showed that the glucose content of the tubers accounted for 80.5–97.6% of the lightness of French fries and 88.4–94.2% for potato chips. The critical glucose content range for acceptable products in French fries and chips based on the color (L* and a*) values was 12–22 mg/100g and 8–14 mg/100g, respectively, for the varieties in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]